Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations

Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations

كتاب عمليات محطات معالجة المياه والصرف الصحي 

من الكتب المميزة فى مجال محطات المياه 

حيث يتحدث عن طرق معالجة المياه والصرف الصحي والحسابات الخاصة بهم 

وما يميز الكتاب انه غني بالأمثلة على كل مقطع.

موضوعات الكتاب :

Chapter 1 Current Issues in Water and Wastewater Treatment Operations………………………………………………………………….. 3
1.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 3
1.2 Sick Water………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 3
1.3 Publicly Owned Treatment Works: Cash Cows or Cash Dogs? …………………………………………………………. 5
1.4 The Paradigm Shift …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 6
1.4.1 A Change in the Way Things Are Understood and Done……………………………………………………. 6
1.5 Multiple-Barrier Concept …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 8
1.5.1 Multiple-Barrier Approach and Wastewater Operations……………………………………………………… 8
1.6 Management Problems Facing Water and Wastewater Operations…………………………………………………….. 9
1.6.1 Compliance with New, Changing, and Existing Regulations………………………………………………. 9
1.6.2 Privatization and/or Reengineering………………………………………………………………………………… 11
1.6.3 Benchmarking …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 12
1.6.3.1 What Benchmarking Is …………………………………………………………………………….. 13
1.6.3.2 Potential Results of Benchmarking…………………………………………………………….. 13
1.6.3.3 Targets……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 13
1.6.3.4 Benchmarking Process……………………………………………………………………………… 13
1.6.3.5 Benchmarking Steps ………………………………………………………………………………… 13
1.6.3.6 Collection of Baseline Data and Tracking Energy Use………………………………….. 14
1.6.3.7 Baseline Audit …………………………………………………………………………………………. 15
1.6.4 Technical vs. Professional Management …………………………………………………………………………. 17
1.6.5 Energy Conservation Measures and Sustainability…………………………………………………………… 18
1.6.5.1 Sustainable Water/Wastewater Infrastructure………………………………………………. 19
1.6.5.2 Maintaining Sustainable Infrastructure ………………………………………………………. 19
1.6.5.3 Water/Wastewater Infrastructure Gap…………………………………………………………. 20
1.6.5.4 Energy Efficiency: Water/Wastewater Treatment Operations…………………………. 20
Chapter Review Questions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 20
References and Recommended Reading ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 21
Chapter 2 Water/Wastewater Operators………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 23
2.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 23
2.2 Setting the Record Straight ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 24
2.3 Computer-Literate Jack or Jill …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 24
2.4 Plant Operators as Emergency Responders…………………………………………………………………………………… 25
2.5 Operator Duties, Numbers, and Working Conditions…………………………………………………………………….. 25
2.6 Operator Certification and Licensure…………………………………………………………………………………………… 26
Chapter Review Questions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 27
References and Suggested Readings……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 27
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Chapter 3 Upgrading Security …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 29
3.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 29
3.2 Consequences of 9/11 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 29
3.3 Security Hardware/Devices………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 31
3.3.1 Physical Asset Monitoring and Control Devices ……………………………………………………………… 31
3.3.1.1 Aboveground Outdoor Equipment Enclosures……………………………………………… 31
3.3.1.2 Alarms……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 32
3.3.1.3 Backflow Prevention Devices…………………………………………………………………….. 33
3.3.1.4 Barriers…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 34
3.3.1.5 Biometric Security Systems………………………………………………………………………. 36
3.3.1.6 Card Identification/Access/Tracking Systems………………………………………………. 37
3.3.1.7 Fences…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 38
3.3.1.8 Films for Glass Shatter Protection ……………………………………………………………… 39
3.3.1.9 Fire Hydrant Locks ………………………………………………………………………………….. 39
3.3.1.10 Hatch Security…………………………………………………………………………………………. 39
3.3.1.11 Intrusion Sensors……………………………………………………………………………………… 40
3.3.1.12 Ladder Access Control……………………………………………………………………………… 40
3.3.1.13 Locks……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 40
3.3.1.14 Manhole Intrusion Sensors………………………………………………………………………… 41
3.3.1.15 Manhole Locks………………………………………………………………………………………… 41
3.3.1.16 Radiation Detection Equipment for Monitoring Personnel and Packages………… 41
3.3.1.17 Reservoir Covers……………………………………………………………………………………… 42
3.3.1.18 Security for Side-Hinged Doors…………………………………………………………………. 42
3.3.1.19 Valve Lockout Devices……………………………………………………………………………… 43
3.3.1.20 Security for Vents…………………………………………………………………………………….. 44
3.3.1.21 Visual Surveillance Monitoring…………………………………………………………………. 44
3.3.2 Water Monitoring Devices……………………………………………………………………………………………. 45
3.3.2.1 Sensors for Monitoring Chemical, Biological, and Radiological Contamination 45
3.3.2.2 Chemical Sensors: Arsenic Measurement System………………………………………… 46
3.3.2.3 Chemical Sensor: Adapted BOD Analyzer………………………………………………….. 46
3.3.2.4 Chemical Sensor: Total Organic Carbon Analyzer……………………………………….. 46
3.3.2.5 Chemical Sensors: Chlorine Measurement System ………………………………………. 47
3.3.2.6 Chemical Sensors: Portable Cyanide Analyzer ……………………………………………. 47
3.3.2.7 Portable Field Monitors to Measure VOCs………………………………………………….. 48
3.3.2.8 Radiation Detection Equipment …………………………………………………………………. 48
3.3.2.9 Radiation Detection Equipment for Monitoring Water Assets……………………….. 49
3.3.2.10 Toxicity Monitoring/Toxicity Meters………………………………………………………….. 50
3.3.3 Communication and Integration…………………………………………………………………………………….. 50
3.3.3.1 Electronic Controllers ………………………………………………………………………………. 50
3.3.3.2 Two-Way Radios………………………………………………………………………………………. 50
3.3.3.3 Wireless Data Communications…………………………………………………………………. 51
3.3.4 Cyber Protection Devices……………………………………………………………………………………………… 51
3.3.4.1 Antivirus and Pest-Eradication Software…………………………………………………….. 51
3.3.4.2 Firewalls…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 52
3.3.4.3 Network Intrusion Hardware and Software …………………………………………………. 52
3.4 SCADA……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 53
3.4.1 What Is SCADA? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 54
3.4.2 SCADA Applications in Water/Wastewater Systems ……………………………………………………….. 54
3.4.3 SCADA Vulnerabilities………………………………………………………………………………………………… 54
3.4.4 Increasing Risk……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 56
3.4.5 Adoption of Technologies with Known Vulnerabilities…………………………………………………….. 56
3.4.6 Cyber Threats to Control Systems…………………………………………………………………………………. 57
3.4.7 Securing Control Systems…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 57
3.4.8 Steps to Improve SCADA Security………………………………………………………………………………… 58
Chapter Review Questions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 61
References and Recommended Reading ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 61
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Chapter 4 Energy Conservation Measures and Sustainability………………………………………………………………………………….. 63
4.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 63
4.2 Pumping System Energy Conservation Measures………………………………………………………………………….. 63
4.2.1 Pumping System Design ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 64
4.2.2 Pump Motors………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 65
4.2.2.1 Motor Efficiency and Efficiency Standards …………………………………………………. 66
4.2.2.2 Motor Management Programs……………………………………………………………………. 66
4.2.2.3 Innovative and Emerging Technologies………………………………………………………. 67
4.2.3 Power Factor……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 67
4.2.4 Variable Frequency Drives……………………………………………………………………………………………. 69
4.2.4.1 Energy Savings………………………………………………………………………………………… 69
4.2.4.2 Applications…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 69
4.2.4.3 Strategies for Wastewater Pumping Stations………………………………………………… 69
4.3 Design and Control of Aeration Systems ……………………………………………………………………………………… 69
4.3.1 ECMs for Aeration Systems………………………………………………………………………………………….. 70
4.3.1.1 ECMs for Diffused Aeration Systems…………………………………………………………. 70
4.3.1.2 ECMs for Mechanical Aerators …………………………………………………………………. 72
4.3.2 Control of the Aeration Process…………………………………………………………………………………….. 72
4.3.2.1 Automated DO Control …………………………………………………………………………….. 72
4.3.3 Emerging Technologies Using Control Parameters Other than DO ……………………………………. 85
4.3.3.1 Respirometry…………………………………………………………………………………………… 85
4.3.3.2 Mass Balance and Measuring Plant Performance…………………………………………. 85
4.3.3.3 Critical Oxygen Point Control Determination ……………………………………………… 86
4.3.3.4 Off-Gas Analysis……………………………………………………………………………………… 86
4.3.4 Innovative and Emerging Control Strategies for Biological Nitrogen Removal……………………. 86
4.3.4.1 SymBio® …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 86
4.3.4.2 Bioprocess Intelligent Optimization System (BIOS) …………………………………….. 87
4.4 Blowers……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 87
4.4.1 High-Speed Gearless (Turbo) Blowers……………………………………………………………………………. 89
4.4.2 Single-Stage Centrifugal Blowers with Inlet Guide Vanes and Variable Diffuser Vanes………. 89
4.4.3 New Diffuser Technology …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 90
4.4.3.1 Fine Bubble Aeration………………………………………………………………………………… 90
4.4.3.2 Fine Bubble Aeration Application Examples……………………………………………….. 90
4.4.4 Preventing Diffuser Fouling………………………………………………………………………………………….. 91
4.5 Innovative and Emerging Energy Conservation Measures……………………………………………………………… 91
4.5.1 UV Disinfection ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 92
4.5.1.1 Design…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 93
4.5.1.2 Operation and Maintenance ………………………………………………………………………. 94
4.5.2 Membrane Bioreactors…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 94
4.5.3 Anoxic and Anaerobic Zone Mixing ……………………………………………………………………………… 95
4.5.3.1 Hyperbolic Mixing…………………………………………………………………………………… 95
4.5.3.2 Pulsed Large Bubble Mixing …………………………………………………………………….. 96
Chapter Review Question…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 97
References and Recommended Reading ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 97
Chapter 5 Water/Wastewater References, Models, and Terminology………………………………………………………………………… 99
5.1 Setting the Stage……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 99
5.2 Treatment Process Models………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 99
5.2.1 Additional Wastewater Treatment Models………………………………………………………………………. 99
5.2.1.1 Green Bay, Wisconsin, Metropolitan Sewerage District………………………………… 99
5.2.1.2 Sheboygan, Michigan, Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant………………………..101
5.2.1.3 Big Gulch Wastewater Treatment Plant …………………………………………………….. 102
5.2.1.4 City of Bartlett, Tennessee, Wastewater Treatment Plant…………………………….. 103
5.2.1.5 Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission Western Branch WWTP,
Prince Georges County, Maryland……………………………………………………………. 104
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5.2.1.6 San Jose/Santa Clara, California, Water Pollution Control Plant ………………….. 105
5.2.1.7 Waco, Texas, Metropolitan Area Regional
Sewer System Wastewater Treatment Facility ……………………………………………. 107
5.3 Key Terms, Acronyms, and Abbreviations Used in Water and Wastewater Operations…………………….. 108
5.3.1 Definitions………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 109
5.3.2 Acronyms and Abbreviations………………………………………………………………………………………..115
Chapter Review Questions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..116
References and Recommended Reading ………………………………………………………………………………………………..117
Section II Water/Wastewater Operations: Math, Physics, and Technical Aspects
Chapter 6 Water/Wastewater Math Operations ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 121
6.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 121
6.2 Calculation Steps…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 121
6.3 Equivalents, Formulae, and Symbols…………………………………………………………………………………………. 121
6.4 Basic Water/Wastewater Math Operations………………………………………………………………………………….. 121
6.4.1 Arithmetic Average (or Arithmetic Mean) and Median…………………………………………………… 121
6.4.2 Units and Conversions………………………………………………………………………………………………… 124
6.4.2.1 Temperature Conversions………………………………………………………………………… 124
6.4.2.2 Milligrams per Liter (Parts per Million)……………………………………………………. 125
6.4.3 Area and Volume……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 125
6.4.4 Force, Pressure, and Head…………………………………………………………………………………………… 125
6.4.5 Flow Conversions………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 127
6.4.6 Flow Calculations………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 128
6.4.6.1 Instantaneous Flow Rates ……………………………………………………………………….. 128
6.4.6.2 Instantaneous Flow into and out of a Rectangular Tank ……………………………… 128
6.4.6.3 Flow Rate into a Cylindrical Tank……………………………………………………………. 129
6.4.6.4 Flow through a Full Pipeline……………………………………………………………………. 129
6.4.6.5 Velocity Calculations ……………………………………………………………………………… 129
6.4.6.6 Average Flow Rate Calculations………………………………………………………………. 130
6.4.6.7 Flow Conversion Calculations………………………………………………………………….. 130
6.4.7 Detention Time………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 130
6.4.8 Hydraulic Detention Time…………………………………………………………………………………………….131
6.4.8.1 Hydraulic Detention Time in Days……………………………………………………………..131
6.4.8.2 Hydraulic Detention Time in Hours……………………………………………………………131
6.4.8.3 Hydraulic Detention Time in Minutes ………………………………………………………..131
6.4.9 Chemical Dosage Calculations ……………………………………………………………………………………. 132
6.4.9.1 Dosage Formula Pie Chart ………………………………………………………………………. 132
6.4.9.2 Chlorine Dosage…………………………………………………………………………………….. 132
6.4.9.3 Hypochlorite Dosage………………………………………………………………………………. 133
6.4.10 Percent Removal………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 134
6.4.11 Population Equivalent or Unit Loading Factor ………………………………………………………………. 134
6.4.12 Specific Gravity…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 135
6.4.13 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge …………………………………………………………………. 135
6.4.14 Chemical Coagulation and Sedimentation…………………………………………………………………….. 135
6.4.14.1 Calculating Feed Rate …………………………………………………………………………….. 135
6.4.14.2 Calculating Solution Strength ………………………………………………………………….. 135
6.4.15 Filtration…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 136
6.4.15.1 Calculating the Rate of Filtration……………………………………………………………… 136
6.4.15.2 Filter Backwash……………………………………………………………………………………… 136
6.4.16 Water Distribution System Calculations……………………………………………………………………….. 136
6.4.16.1 Water Flow Velocity……………………………………………………………………………….. 136
6.4.16.2 Storage Tank Calculations……………………………………………………………………….. 138
6.4.16.3 Distribution System Disinfection Calculations…………………………………………… 138
6.4.17 Complex Conversions…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 139
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6.4.17.1 Concentration to Quantity……………………………………………………………………….. 139
6.4.17.2 Quantity to Concentration……………………………………………………………………….. 139
6.4.17.3 Quantity to Volume or Flow Rate …………………………………………………………….. 140
6.5 Applied Math Operations…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 140
6.5.1 Mass Balance and Measuring Plant Performance…………………………………………………………… 140
6.5.2 Mass Balance for Settling Tanks………………………………………………………………………………….. 140
6.5.3 Mass Balance Using BOD Removal ………………………………………………………………………………141
6.5.4 Measuring Plant Performance……………………………………………………………………………………….141
6.5.4.1 Plant Performance/Efficiency ………………………………………………………………….. 142
6.5.4.2 Unit Process Performance/Efficiency ……………………………………………………….. 142
6.5.4.3 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge ……………………………………………… 142
6.6 Water Math Concepts………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 142
6.6.1 Water Sources and Storage Calculations……………………………………………………………………….. 142
6.6.2 Water Source Calculations………………………………………………………………………………………….. 142
6.6.2.1 Well Drawdown……………………………………………………………………………………… 142
6.6.2.2 Well Yield……………………………………………………………………………………………….143
6.6.2.3 Specific Yield ………………………………………………………………………………………….143
6.6.2.4 Well Casing Disinfection ………………………………………………………………………….143
6.6.2.5 Deep-Well Turbine Pump Calculations……………………………………………………… 144
6.6.2.6 Vertical Turbine Pumps…………………………………………………………………………… 144
6.6.3 Water Storage Calculations…………………………………………………………………………………………. 144
6.6.4 Copper Sulfate Dosing Calculations…………………………………………………………………………….. 145
6.6.5 Coagulation and Flocculation Calculations …………………………………………………………………… 145
6.6.5.1 Coagulation …………………………………………………………………………………………… 145
6.6.5.2 Flocculation…………………………………………………………………………………………… 146
6.6.5.3 Coagulation and Flocculation Calculations ……………………………………………….. 146
6.6.6 Chemical Usage Calculations………………………………………………………………………………………. 150
6.6.7 Sedimentation Calculations…………………………………………………………………………………………. 151
6.6.7.1 Calculating Tank Volume………………………………………………………………………… 151
6.6.7.2 Detention Time………………………………………………………………………………………. 151
6.6.7.3 Surface Loading Rate……………………………………………………………………………… 151
6.6.7.4 Mean Flow Velocity ……………………………………………………………………………….. 152
6.6.7.5 Weir Overflow Rate (Weir Loading Rate)………………………………………………….. 152
6.6.7.6 Percent Settled Biosolids…………………………………………………………………………. 153
6.6.7.7 Determining Lime Dosage (mg/L)……………………………………………………………. 153
6.6.7.8 Determining Lime Dosage (lb/day)…………………………………………………………… 155
6.6.7.9 Determining Lime Dosage (g/min)…………………………………………………………… 155
6.6.8 Filtration Calculations………………………………………………………………………………………………… 155
6.6.8.1 Flow Rate through a Filter (gpm)……………………………………………………………… 156
6.6.8.2 Filtration Rate………………………………………………………………………………………… 157
6.6.8.3 Unit Filter Run Volume (UFRV)………………………………………………………………. 157
6.6.8.4 Backwash Rate ………………………………………………………………………………………. 158
6.6.8.5 Backwash Rise Rate ……………………………………………………………………………….. 159
6.6.8.6 Volume of Backwash Water Required (gal)……………………………………………….. 159
6.6.8.7 Required Depth of Backwash Water Tank (ft)……………………………………………. 159
6.6.8.8 Backwash Pumping Rate (gpm)……………………………………………………………….. 160
6.6.8.9 Percent Product Water Used for Backwashing……………………………………………. 160
6.6.8.10 Percent Mud Ball Volume ……………………………………………………………………….. 160
6.6.8.11 Filter Bed Expansion………………………………………………………………………………..161
6.6.9 Water Chlorination Calculations……………………………………………………………………………………161
6.6.9.1 Chlorine Disinfection……………………………………………………………………………….161
6.6.9.2 Determining Chlorine Dosage (Feed Rate) …………………………………………………161
6.6.9.3 Calculating Chlorine Dose, Demand, and Residual ……………………………………. 162
6.6.9.4 Calculating Dry Hypochlorite Rate ………………………………………………………….. 164
6.6.9.5 Calculating Hypochlorite Solution Feed Rate…………………………………………….. 165
6.6.9.6 Calculating Percent Strength of Solutions………………………………………………….. 165
6.6.9.7 Calculating Percent Strength Using Dry Hypochlorite………………………………… 165
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6.6.10 Chemical Use Calculations…………………………………………………………………………………………. 166
6.6.11 Fluoridation Calculations……………………………………………………………………………………………. 166
6.6.11.1 Water Fluoridation………………………………………………………………………………….. 166
6.6.11.2 Fluoride Compounds………………………………………………………………………………. 166
6.6.11.3 Optimal Fluoride Levels …………………………………………………………………………. 167
6.6.11.4 Fluoridation Process Calculations…………………………………………………………….. 168
6.6.12 Water Softening Calculations………………………………………………………………………………………. 172
6.6.12.1 Calculating Calcium Hardness as CaCO3 ………………………………………………….. 172
6.6.12.2 Calculating Magnesium Hardness as CaCO3 ……………………………………………… 172
6.6.12.3 Calculating Total Hardness……………………………………………………………………… 172
6.6.12.4 Calculating Carbonate and Noncarbonate Hardness …………………………………….173
6.6.12.5 Alkalinity Determination………………………………………………………………………….174
6.6.12.6 Calculation for Removal of Noncarbonate Hardness…………………………………….174
6.6.12.7 Recarbonation Calculation………………………………………………………………………..175
6.6.12.8 Calculating Feed Rates……………………………………………………………………………..176
6.6.12.9 Ion-Exchange Capacity …………………………………………………………………………….176
6.6.12.10 Water Treatment Capacity……………………………………………………………………….. 177
6.6.12.11 Treatment Time Calculation (Until Regeneration Required)………………………… 177
6.6.12.12 Salt and Brine Required for Regeneration …………………………………………………..178
6.7 Wastewater Math Concepts………………………………………………………………………………………………………..178
6.7.1 Preliminary Treatment Calculations………………………………………………………………………………178
6.7.1.1 Screening………………………………………………………………………………………………..178
6.7.1.2 Grit Removal …………………………………………………………………………………………. 179
6.7.2 Primary Treatment Calculations……………………………………………………………………………………181
6.7.2.1 Process Control ……………………………………………………………………………………….181
6.7.2.2 Surface Loading Rate (Surface Settling Rate/Surface Overflow Rate) ………….. 182
6.7.2.3 Weir Overflow Rate (Weir Loading Rate)………………………………………………….. 182
6.7.2.4 BOD and Suspended Solids Removed (lb/day)…………………………………………… 182
6.7.3 Trickling Filter Process Calculations……………………………………………………………………………. 183
6.7.3.1 Hydraulic Loading …………………………………………………………………………………. 183
6.7.3.2 Organic Loading Rate …………………………………………………………………………….. 184
6.7.3.3 Recirculation Flow …………………………………………………………………………………. 184
6.7.4 Rotating Biological Contactor Calculations…………………………………………………………………… 184
6.7.4.1 Hydraulic Loading Rate ………………………………………………………………………….. 185
6.7.4.2 Soluble BOD………………………………………………………………………………………….. 185
6.7.4.3 Organic Loading Rate …………………………………………………………………………….. 186
6.7.4.4 Total Media Area……………………………………………………………………………………. 186
6.7.5 Activated Biosolids Calculations………………………………………………………………………………….. 186
6.7.5.1 Moving Averages……………………………………………………………………………………. 186
6.7.5.2 BOD or COD Loading ……………………………………………………………………………. 187
6.7.5.3 Solids Inventory …………………………………………………………………………………….. 187
6.7.5.4 Food-to-Microorganism Ratio (F/M Ratio) ……………………………………………….. 187
6.7.5.5 Gould Sludge Age ………………………………………………………………………………….. 189
6.7.5.6 Mean Cell Residence Time ……………………………………………………………………… 189
6.7.5.7 Estimating Return Rates from SSV60 ………………………………………………………… 190
6.7.5.8 Sludge Volume Index ……………………………………………………………………………… 190
6.7.5.9 Mass Balance: Settling Tank Suspended Solids …………………………………………..191
6.7.5.10 Biosolids Waste Based on Mass Balance …………………………………………………….191
6.7.5.11 Oxidation Ditch Detention Time………………………………………………………………..191
6.7.6 Treatment Ponds Calculations……………………………………………………………………………………… 192
6.7.6.1 Treatment Pond Parameters …………………………………………………………………….. 192
6.7.6.2 Treatment Pond Process Control………………………………………………………………. 192
6.7.6.3 Hydraulic Detention Time (Days) …………………………………………………………….. 192
6.7.6.4 BOD Loading ………………………………………………………………………………………… 193
6.7.6.5 Organic Loading Rate …………………………………………………………………………….. 193
6.7.6.6 BOD Removal Efficiency………………………………………………………………………… 193
Contents xi
6.7.6.7 Population Loading ………………………………………………………………………………… 193
6.7.6.8 Hydraulic Loading (In./Day) (Overflow Rate)……………………………………………. 193
6.7.7 Chemical Dosing Calculations…………………………………………………………………………………….. 193
6.7.7.1 Chemical Feed Rate ……………………………………………………………………………….. 194
6.7.7.2 Chlorine Dose, Demand, and Residual……………………………………………………… 194
6.7.7.3 Hypochlorite Dosage………………………………………………………………………………. 195
6.7.8 Chemical Solution Calculations…………………………………………………………………………………… 196
6.7.8.1 Solution Chemical Feeder Setting (gpd)……………………………………………………. 196
6.7.8.2 Chemical Feed Pump: Percent Stroke Setting ……………………………………………. 197
6.7.8.3 Chemical Solution Feeder Setting (mL/min)……………………………………………… 197
6.7.8.4 Chemical Feed Calibration………………………………………………………………………. 197
6.7.8.5 Average Use…………………………………………………………………………………………… 198
6.7.8.6 Process Residuals: Biosolids Production and Pumping ……………………………….. 199
6.7.8.7 Primary and Secondary Solids Production………………………………………………… 199
6.7.8.8 Primary Clarifier Solids Production …………………………………………………………. 199
6.7.8.9 Secondary Clarifier Solids Production………………………………………………………. 199
6.7.8.10 Percent Solids…………………………………………………………………………………………200
6.7.8.11 Biosolids Pumping ………………………………………………………………………………….200
6.7.8.12 Biosolids Thickening………………………………………………………………………………. 201
6.7.8.13 Centrifuge Thickening ……………………………………………………………………………. 203
6.7.8.14 Biosolids Digestion/Stabilization……………………………………………………………… 203
6.7.8.15 Aerobic Digestion Process Control …………………………………………………………… 203
6.7.8.16 Anaerobic Digestion Process Control ……………………………………………………….. 204
6.7.9 Biosolids Dewatering and Disposal Calculations …………………………………………………………… 205
6.7.9.1 Pressure Filtration ………………………………………………………………………………….. 206
6.7.9.2 Plate and Frame Press…………………………………………………………………………….. 206
6.7.9.3 Belt Filter Press……………………………………………………………………………………… 206
6.7.9.4 Rotary Vacuum Filter Dewatering ……………………………………………………………. 208
6.7.9.5 Sand Drying Beds ………………………………………………………………………………….. 209
6.7.10 Biosolids Disposal Calculations…………………………………………………………………………………….210
6.7.10.1 Land Application……………………………………………………………………………………..210
6.7.10.2 Biosolids to Compost………………………………………………………………………………. 212
6.7.10.3 Composting Calculations………………………………………………………………………… 212
6.8 Water/Wastewater Laboratory Calculations………………………………………………………………………………… 212
6.8.1 Faucet Flow Estimation………………………………………………………………………………………………. 212
6.8.2 Service Line Flushing Time………………………………………………………………………………………… 213
6.8.3 Composite Sampling ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 213
6.8.4 Biochemical Oxygen Demand……………………………………………………………………………………….214
6.8.4.1 BOD5 (Unseeded)…………………………………………………………………………………….214
6.8.4.2 BOD5 (Seeded) ………………………………………………………………………………………. 215
6.8.4.3 BOD 7-Day Moving Average …………………………………………………………………… 215
6.8.5 Moles and Molarity ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 215
6.8.5.1 Moles……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 215
6.8.5.2 Normality ……………………………………………………………………………………………….216
6.8.6 Settleability (Activated Biosolids)………………………………………………………………………………….216
6.8.7 Settleable Solids………………………………………………………………………………………………………….216
6.8.8 Biosolids Total Solids, Fixed Solids, and Volatile Solids ………………………………………………….217
6.8.9 Wastewater Suspended Solids and Volatile Suspended Solids …………………………………………..218
6.8.10 Biosolids Volume Index and Biosolids Density Index ………………………………………………………218
Chapter Review Questions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..219
References and Suggested Reading……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 229
Chapter 7 Science Fundamentals……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 231
7.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 231
7.2 Force and Motion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 231
xii Contents
7.2.1 Position and Time………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 231
7.2.2 Speed and Velocity…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 231
7.3 Acceleration……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 233
7.3.1 Acceleration of Gravity ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 233
7.4 Force ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 233
7.5 Newton’s Laws of Motion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 234
7.5.1 Newton’s First Law…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 234
7.5.2 Newton’s Second Law ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 234
7.5.3 Newton’s Third Law…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 234
7.6 Work ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 234
7.7 Energy……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 235
7.7.1 Potential Energy ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 235
7.7.2 Kinetic Energy ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 235
7.8 Momentum …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 235
7.9 Circular Motion ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 236
7.10 Angular Motion ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 236
7.11 Angular Velocity …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 236
7.12 Angular Acceleration ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 237
7.13 Torque……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 237
7.14 Angular Momentum………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 237
7.15 Gravity…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 237
7.16 Thermal Properties………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 237
7.16.1 Specific Heat …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 238
7.17 States of Matter ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 238
7.17.1 Gas Laws………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 238
7.17.2 Liquids and Solutions…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 238
7.18 Wave Motion and Sound…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 239
7.18.1 Waves……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 239
7.18.1.1 Wave Characteristics………………………………………………………………………………. 239
7.18.1.2 Transverse and Longitudinal Waves …………………………………………………………. 239
7.18.2 Physics of Sound ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 239
7.18.2.1 Octave Bands………………………………………………………………………………………….240
7.18.2.2 Sound Pressure ……………………………………………………………………………………….240
7.19 Light………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 241
7.19.1 Speed of Light …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 241
7.19.2 Sources of Light ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 241
7.19.3 Luminous Intensity of Light………………………………………………………………………………………… 241
7.19.4 Laws of Reflection and Refraction ……………………………………………………………………………….. 242
7.19.4.1 Laws of Reflection………………………………………………………………………………….. 242
7.19.4.2 Laws of Refraction …………………………………………………………………………………. 242
7.19.5 Polarization ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 243
7.20 Color……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 243
Chapter Review Questions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 243
Chapter 8 Blueprint Reading …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 245
8.1 Blueprints: The Universal Language………………………………………………………………………………………….. 245
8.1.1 Blueprint Standards……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 246
8.1.1.1 Standards-Setting Organizations ……………………………………………………………… 246
8.1.1.2 ANSI Standards for Blueprint Sheets………………………………………………………… 246
8.1.2 Finding Information …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 247
8.1.2.1 Detail Drawings …………………………………………………………………………………….. 247
8.1.2.2 Assembly Drawings………………………………………………………………………………… 247
8.1.3 Title Block ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 247
8.1.4 Drawing Notes…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 250
8.1.4.1 General Notes………………………………………………………………………………………… 250
8.1.4.2 Local Notes …………………………………………………………………………………………… 250
Contents xiii
8.2 Units of Measurement ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 252
8.2.1 Fractions and Decimal Fractions …………………………………………………………………………………. 252
8.3 Alphabet of Lines……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 253
8.3.1 Just a Bunch of Drawn Lines?……………………………………………………………………………………… 253
8.3.2 Visible Lines……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 254
8.3.3 Hidden Lines…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 254
8.3.4 Section Lines…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 254
8.3.5 Center Lines……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 254
8.3.6 Dimension and Extension Lines…………………………………………………………………………………… 254
8.3.7 Leaders…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 254
8.3.8 Cutting Plane or Viewing Plane Lines………………………………………………………………………….. 254
8.3.9 Break Lines ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 254
8.3.10 Phantom Lines…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 256
8.3.11 Line Gauge ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 256
8.3.12 Views……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 256
8.3.12.1 Orthographic Projections………………………………………………………………………… 256
8.3.12.2 One-View Drawings……………………………………………………………………………….. 259
8.3.12.3 Two-View Drawings……………………………………………………………………………….. 259
8.3.12.4 Three-View Drawings…………………………………………………………………………….. 259
8.3.12.5 Auxiliary Views…………………………………………………………………………………….. 260
8.4 Dimensions and Shop Notes……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 262
8.4.1 Dimensioning ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 262
8.4.2 Decimal and Size Dimensions…………………………………………………………………………………….. 262
8.4.3 Definition of Dimensioning Terms……………………………………………………………………………….. 263
8.4.3.1 Nominal Size…………………………………………………………………………………………. 263
8.4.3.2 Basic Size ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 263
8.4.3.3 Allowance……………………………………………………………………………………………… 263
8.4.3.4 Design Size……………………………………………………………………………………………. 263
8.4.3.5 Limits …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 263
8.4.3.6 Tolerance ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 264
8.4.3.7 Datum…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 264
8.4.4 Types of Dimensions………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 264
8.4.4.1 Linear Dimensions…………………………………………………………………………………. 264
8.4.4.2 Angular Dimensions ………………………………………………………………………………. 264
8.4.4.3 Reference Dimensions…………………………………………………………………………….. 265
8.4.4.4 Tabular Dimensions………………………………………………………………………………… 265
8.4.4.5 Arrowless Dimensions ……………………………………………………………………………. 265
8.4.5 Shop Notes………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 265
8.5 Machine Drawings ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 266
8.5.1 Centrifugal Pump Drawing…………………………………………………………………………………………. 266
8.5.1.1 Centrifugal Pump Attributes……………………………………………………………………. 266
8.5.1.2 How a Centrifugal Pump Works………………………………………………………………. 266
8.5.1.3 Centrifugal Pump Components………………………………………………………………… 267
8.5.2 Packing Gland Drawing ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 267
8.5.3 Submersible Pump Drawing………………………………………………………………………………………… 267
8.5.4 Turbine Pump Drawing………………………………………………………………………………………………. 268
8.6 Sheet Metal Drawings……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 268
8.6.1 Sheet Metal……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 268
8.6.2 Dimension Calculations ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 268
8.6.2.1 Calculations for Allowances in Bend………………………………………………………… 268
8.6.2.2 Set-Back Table……………………………………………………………………………………….. 268
8.6.2.3 Formulae Used to Determine Developed Length ……………………………………….. 269
8.6.3 Hems and Joints ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 270
8.7 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Drawings…………………………………………………………………………………………… 270
8.7.1 Standard Hydraulic System…………………………………………………………………………………………. 270
8.7.2 Standard Pneumatic System………………………………………………………………………………………… 271
8.7.3 Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems: Similarities and Differences……………………………………… 271
xiv Contents
8.7.4 Types of Hydraulic and Pneumatic Drawings………………………………………………………………… 271
8.7.5 Graphic Symbols for Fluid Power Systems……………………………………………………………………. 272
8.7.5.1 Symbols for Methods of Operation (Controls)……………………………………………. 272
8.7.5.2 Symbols for Rotary Devices…………………………………………………………………….. 272
8.7.5.3 Symbols for Lines ………………………………………………………………………………….. 272
8.7.5.4 Symbols for Valves…………………………………………………………………………………. 272
8.7.5.5 Symbols for Miscellaneous Units……………………………………………………………… 274
8.7.6 Supplementary Information Accompanying Graphic Drawings ………………………………………. 274
8.7.6.1 Sequence of Operations…………………………………………………………………………… 274
8.7.6.2 Solenoid Chart……………………………………………………………………………………….. 274
8.7.6.3 Bill of Materials …………………………………………………………………………………….. 275
8.8 Welding Blueprints and Symbols………………………………………………………………………………………………. 275
8.8.1 Welding Processes……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 275
8.8.2 Types of Welded Joints……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 276
8.8.2.1 Butt Joints……………………………………………………………………………………………… 276
8.8.2.2 Lap Joints ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 276
8.8.2.3 Tee Joints………………………………………………………………………………………………. 276
8.8.2.4 Edge Joints ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 276
8.8.2.5 Corner Joints …………………………………………………………………………………………. 276
8.8.3 Basic Weld Symbols…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 276
8.8.3.1 Symbols for Arc and Gas Welds………………………………………………………………. 276
8.8.3.2 Symbols for Resistance Welds …………………………………………………………………. 276
8.8.3.3 Symbols for Supplementary Welds…………………………………………………………… 277
8.8.4 The Welding Symbol………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 277
8.8.4.1 Reference Line ………………………………………………………………………………………. 277
8.8.4.2 Arrowhead…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 277
8.8.4.3 Weld Symbol …………………………………………………………………………………………. 278
8.8.4.4 Dimensions……………………………………………………………………………………………. 278
8.8.4.5 Special Symbols…………………………………………………………………………………….. 279
8.8.4.6 Tail……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 280
8.9 Electrical Drawings…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 280
8.9.1 Troubleshooting and Electrical Drawings……………………………………………………………………… 280
8.9.2 Electrical Symbols …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 280
8.9.2.1 Electrical Voltage and Power …………………………………………………………………… 280
8.9.2.2 What Is Voltage? ……………………………………………………………………………………. 280
8.9.2.3 How Is Voltage Produced? ………………………………………………………………………. 281
8.9.2.4 How Is Electricity Delivered to the Plant?…………………………………………………. 281
8.9.2.5 Electric Power ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 281
8.9.2.6 Types of Electrical Drawings…………………………………………………………………… 281
8.9.2.7 Types of Architectural Drawings……………………………………………………………… 282
8.9.2.8 Circuit Drawings……………………………………………………………………………………. 282
8.9.2.9 Ladder Drawing……………………………………………………………………………………… 283
8.10 AC&R Drawings …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 284
8.10.1 Refrigeration……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 284
8.10.1.1 Basic Principles of Refrigeration………………………………………………………………. 284
8.10.1.2 Refrigeration System Components……………………………………………………………. 284
8.10.1.3 Refrigeration System Operation……………………………………………………………….. 284
8.10.1.4 Using Refrigeration Drawings in Troubleshooting ……………………………………… 285
8.10.1.5 Refrigeration Component Drawings …………………………………………………………. 286
8.10.2 Air Conditioning ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 286
8.10.2.1 Operation of a Simple Air Conditioning System ………………………………………… 286
8.10.1.2 Design of Air Conditioning Systems ………………………………………………………… 287
8.10.1.3 Air Conditioning Drawings……………………………………………………………………… 287
8.11 Schematics and Symbols………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 287
8.11.1 How to Use Schematic Diagrams…………………………………………………………………………………. 288
8.11.2 Schematic Circuit Layout……………………………………………………………………………………………. 288
8.11.3 Schematic Symbols ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 289
Contents xv
8.11.3.1 Lines on a Schematic………………………………………………………………………………. 289
8.11.3.2 Lines Connect Symbols…………………………………………………………………………… 289
8.11.4 Schematic Diagram: An Example………………………………………………………………………………… 289
8.11.4.1 A Schematic by Any Other Name Is a Line Diagram………………………………….. 289
8.11.5 Schematics and Troubleshooting………………………………………………………………………………….. 291
8.12 Electrical Schematics ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 291
8.12.1 Electrical Symbols …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 292
8.12.1.1 Schematic Lines …………………………………………………………………………………….. 292
8.12.1.2 Electrical System Power Supplies…………………………………………………………….. 292
8.12.1.3 Electronics Power Supplies……………………………………………………………………… 293
8.12.1.4 Electrical Loads……………………………………………………………………………………… 294
8.12.1.5 Switches………………………………………………………………………………………………… 294
8.12.1.6 Inductors (Coils)…………………………………………………………………………………….. 295
8.12.1.7 Transformers …………………………………………………………………………………………. 295
8.12.1.8 Fuses…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 295
8.12.1.9 Circuit Breakers……………………………………………………………………………………… 295
8.12.1.10 Electrical Contacts …………………………………………………………………………………. 296
8.12.1.11 Resistors ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 296
8.12.2 Reading Plant Schematics…………………………………………………………………………………………… 296
8.13 General Piping Systems and System Schematics…………………………………………………………………………. 298
8.13.1 Piping Systems………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 299
8.13.2 Joints………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 299
8.13.2.1 Screwed Joints……………………………………………………………………………………….. 299
8.13.2.2 Welded Joints…………………………………………………………………………………………. 299
8.13.2.3 Flanged Joints………………………………………………………………………………………… 299
8.13.2.4 Bell-and-Spigot Joints…………………………………………………………………………….. 299
8.13.2.5 Soldered Joints………………………………………………………………………………………..300
8.13.2.6 Joints and Fitting Symbols……………………………………………………………………….300
8.13.3 Valves……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….300
8.13.3.1 Valves: Definition and Function………………………………………………………………..300
8.13.3.2 Valve Construction…………………………………………………………………………………. 301
8.13.4 Types of Valves …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 301
8.13.4.1 Ball Valve ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 301
8.13.4.2 Cock Valves…………………………………………………………………………………………… 302
8.13.4.3 Gate Valves……………………………………………………………………………………………. 302
8.13.4.4 Globe Valves………………………………………………………………………………………….. 302
8.13.4.5 Check Valves…………………………………………………………………………………………. 303
8.14 Hydraulic and Pneumatic System Schematic Symbols…………………………………………………………………. 303
8.14.1 Fluid Power Systems………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 303
8.14.2 Symbols Used for Hydraulic and Pneumatic Components………………………………………………. 304
8.14.3 AC&R System Schematic Symbols………………………………………………………………………………. 304
8.14.4 Schematic Symbols Used in Refrigeration Systems ……………………………………………………….. 305
8.14.4.1 Refrigeration Piping Symbols………………………………………………………………….. 305
8.14.4.2 Refrigeration Fittings Symbols ………………………………………………………………… 305
8.14.4.3 Refrigeration Valve Symbols……………………………………………………………………. 305
8.14.4.4 Refrigeration Accessory Symbols…………………………………………………………….. 306
8.14.4.5 Refrigeration Component Symbols…………………………………………………………… 306
8.14.4.5 Schematic Symbols Used in AC&R Air Distribution System ………………………. 306
Chapter Review Questions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 307
References and Suggested Reading……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 308
Chapter 9 Water Hydraulics………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 309
9.1 What Is Water Hydraulics?……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 309
9.2 Basic Concepts ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 309
9.2.1 Stevin’s Law ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….310
9.3 Density and Specific Gravity………………………………………………………………………………………………………311
xvi Contents
9.4 Force and Pressure…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….312
9.4.1 Hydrostatic Pressure…………………………………………………………………………………………………….312
9.4.2 Effects of Water under Pressure…………………………………………………………………………………….313
9.5 Head………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..313
9.5.1 Static Head …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………314
9.5.2 Friction Head………………………………………………………………………………………………………………314
9.5.3 Velocity Head ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..314
9.5.4 Total Dynamic Head (Total System Head) ……………………………………………………………………..314
9.5.5 Pressure and Head……………………………………………………………………………………………………….314
9.5.6 Head and Pressure……………………………………………………………………………………………………….314
9.6 Flow and Discharge Rates: Water in Motion…………………………………………………………………………………314
9.6.1 Area and Velocity………………………………………………………………………………………………………..315
9.6.2 Pressure and Velocity…………………………………………………………………………………………………..316
9.7 Piezometric Surface and Bernoulli’s Theorem ……………………………………………………………………………..316
9.7.1 Conservation of Energy………………………………………………………………………………………………..316
9.7.2 Energy Head……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….316
9.7.3 Piezometric Surface …………………………………………………………………………………………………….316
9.7.4 Head Loss…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..317
9.7.5 Hydraulic Grade Line…………………………………………………………………………………………………..317
9.7.6 Bernoulli’s Theorem…………………………………………………………………………………………………….317
9.7.7 Bernoulli’s Equation…………………………………………………………………………………………………….318
9.8 Well and Wet Well Hydraulics ……………………………………………………………………………………………………319
9.8.1 Well Hydraulics…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..319
9.8.2 Wet Well Hydraulics…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 320
9.9 Friction Head Loss ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 320
9.9.1 Flow in Pipelines……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 320
9.9.2 Major Head Loss……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 321
9.9.3 Calculating Major Head Loss………………………………………………………………………………………. 322
9.9.4 C Factor……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 322
9.9.5 Slope………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 323
9.9.6 Minor Head Loss……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 323
9.10 Basic Piping Hydraulics …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 323
9.10.1 Piping Networks………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 323
9.11 Open-Channel Flow ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 324
9.11.1 Characteristics of Open-Channel Flow…………………………………………………………………………. 325
9.11.1.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow……………………………………………………………………. 325
9.11.1.2 Uniform and Varied Flow ……………………………………………………………………….. 325
9.11.1.3 Critical Flow………………………………………………………………………………………….. 325
9.11.2 Parameters Used in Open-Channel Flow………………………………………………………………………. 325
9.11.2.1 Hydraulic Radius……………………………………………………………………………………. 325
9.11.2.2 Hydraulic Depth …………………………………………………………………………………….. 326
9.11.2.3 Slope…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 326
9.11.3 Open-Channel Flow Calculations………………………………………………………………………………… 326
9.12 Flow Measurement ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 327
9.12.1 Flow Measurement the Old-Fashioned Way ………………………………………………………………….. 328
9.12.2 Basis of Traditional Flow Measurement ……………………………………………………………………….. 328
9.12.3 Flow Measuring Devices…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 328
9.12.3.1 Differential Pressure Flowmeters……………………………………………………………… 329
9.12.3.2 Magnetic Flowmeters……………………………………………………………………………….331
9.12.3.3 Ultrasonic Flowmeters……………………………………………………………………………..331
9.12.3.4 Velocity Flowmeters……………………………………………………………………………….. 332
9.12.3.5 Positive-Displacement Flowmeters…………………………………………………………… 333
9.12.4 Open-Channel Flow Measurement ………………………………………………………………………………. 333
9.12.4.1 Weirs…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 334
9.12.4.2 Flumes………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 335
Chapter Review Questions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 335
References and Recommended Readings……………………………………………………………………………………………… 336
Contents xvii
Chapter 10 Fundamentals of Electricity ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 337
10.1 Nature of Electricity ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 338
10.2 Structure of Matter………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 338
10.3 Conductors, Semiconductors, and Insulators………………………………………………………………………………. 340
10.4 Static Electricity ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 340
10.4.1 Charged Bodies…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 340
10.4.2 Coulomb’s Law………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 341
10.4.3 Electrostatic Fields…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 341
10.5 Magnetism……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 341
10.5.1 Magnetic Materials ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 342
10.5.2 Magnetic Earth………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 343
10.6 Difference in Potential……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 343
10.6.1 Water Analogy…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 343
10.6.2 Principal Methods for Producing a Voltage …………………………………………………………………… 344
10.7 Current…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 344
10.8 Resistance ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 345
10.9 Battery-Supplied Electricity……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 345
10.9.1 Voltaic Cell……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 345
10.9.2 Primary and Secondary Cells……………………………………………………………………………………… 346
10.9.3 Battery……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 346
10.9.4 Battery Operation………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 346
10.9.5 Combining Cells………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 346
10.9.6 Types of Batteries………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 347
10.9.6.1 Dry Cell………………………………………………………………………………………………… 347
10.9.6.2 Lead–Acid Battery …………………………………………………………………………………. 347
10.9.6.3 Alkaline Cell…………………………………………………………………………………………. 348
10.9.6.4 Nickel–Cadmium Cell…………………………………………………………………………….. 348
10.9.6.5 Mercury Cell …………………………………………………………………………………………. 348
10.9.7 Battery Characteristics……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 348
10.10 Simple Electrical Circuit ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 348
10.10.1 Schematic Representations………………………………………………………………………………………….. 349
10.11 Ohm’s Law……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 350
10.12 Electrical Power………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..351
10.12.1 Electrical Power Calculations ……………………………………………………………………………………… 352
10.13 Electrical Energy (Kilowatt-Hours)……………………………………………………………………………………………. 352
10.14 Series DC Circuit Characteristics………………………………………………………………………………………………. 353
10.14.1 Series Circuit Resistance…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 353
10.14.2 Series Circuit Current…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 354
10.14.3 Series Circuit Voltage…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 354
10.14.4 Series Circuit Power…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 355
10.14.5 Summary of the Rules for Series DC Circuits……………………………………………………………….. 356
10.14.6 General Series Circuit Analysis…………………………………………………………………………………… 356
10.14.7 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 357
10.14.8 Polarity of Voltage Drops……………………………………………………………………………………………. 357
10.14.9 Series Aiding and Opposing Sources……………………………………………………………………………. 358
10.14.10 Kirchhoff’s Law and Multiple Source Solutions…………………………………………………………….. 358
10.15 Ground…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 358
10.16 Open and Short Circuits…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 359
10.17 Parallel DC Circuits ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 359
10.17.1 Parallel Circuit Characteristics ……………………………………………………………………………………. 359
10.17.2 Voltage in Parallel Circuits …………………………………………………………………………………………. 359
10.17.3 Current in Parallel Circuits…………………………………………………………………………………………. 360
10.17.4 Parallel Circuits and Kirchhoff’s Current Law………………………………………………………………. 361
10.17.5 Parallel Circuit Resistance ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 362
10.17.6 Reciprocal Method…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 363
10.17.7 Product over the Sum Method……………………………………………………………………………………… 364
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10.17.8 Reduction to an Equivalent Circuit ………………………………………………………………………………. 364
10.17.9 Power in Parallel Circuits……………………………………………………………………………………………. 364
10.17.10 Rules for Solving Parallel DC Circuits …………………………………………………………………………. 364
10.18 Series–Parallel Circuits……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 365
10.18.1 Solving a Series–Parallel Circuit …………………………………………………………………………………. 365
10.19 Conductors……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 365
10.19.1 Unit Size of Conductors ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 365
10.19.2 Square Mil………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 365
10.19.3 Circular Mil………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 366
10.19.4 Circular-Mil-Foot………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 366
10.19.5 Resistivity…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 367
10.19.6 Wire Measurement…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 367
10.19.7 Factors Governing the Selection of Wire Size ……………………………………………………………….. 368
10.19.8 Copper vs. Other Metal Conductors……………………………………………………………………………… 368
10.19.9 Temperature Coefficient……………………………………………………………………………………………… 369
10.19.10 Conductor Insulation ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 369
10.19.11 Conductors, Splices, and Terminal Connections ……………………………………………………………. 369
10.19.12 Soldering Operations………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 370
10.19.13 Solderless Connections……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 370
10.19.14 Insulating Tape ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 370
10.20 Electromagnetism……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 370
10.20.1 Magnetic Field around a Single Conductor……………………………………………………………………. 370
10.20.2 Polarity of a Single Conductor …………………………………………………………………………………….. 371
10.20.3 Field around Two Parallel Conductors………………………………………………………………………….. 371
10.20.4 Magnetic Field of a Coil……………………………………………………………………………………………… 372
10.20.5 Polarity of an Electromagnetic Coil……………………………………………………………………………… 372
10.20.6 Strength of an Electromagnetic Field……………………………………………………………………………. 372
10.20.7 Magnetic Units………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 372
10.20.8 Properties of Magnetic Materials…………………………………………………………………………………. 373
10.20.8.1 Permeability ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 373
10.20.8.2 Hysteresis ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 373
10.20.9 Electromagnets………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 373
10.21 AC Theory……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 373
10.21.1 Basic AC Generator……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 374
10.21.2 Cycle………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 374
10.21.3 Frequency, Period, and Wavelength ……………………………………………………………………………… 375
10.21.4 Characteristic Values of AC Voltage and Current ………………………………………………………….. 376
10.21.5 Peak Amplitude…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 376
10.21.6 Peak-to-Peak Amplitude …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 376
10.21.7 Instantaneous Amplitude ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 376
10.21.8 Effective or RMS Value ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 377
10.21.9 Average Value……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 377
10.21.10 Resistance in AC Circuits……………………………………………………………………………………………. 377
10.21.11 Phase Relationships……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 378
10.22 Inductance ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 379
10.22.1 Self-Inductance………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 380
10.22.2 Mutual Inductance……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 381
10.22.3 Calculation of Total Inductance …………………………………………………………………………………… 381
10.23 Practical Electrical Applications……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 382
10.23.1 Electrical Power Generation………………………………………………………………………………………… 382
10.23.1.1 DC Generators……………………………………………………………………………………….. 382
10.23.1.2 AC Generators……………………………………………………………………………………….. 384
10.23.1.3 Motors ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 384
10.23.1.4 DC Motors…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 384
10.23.1.5 AC Motors…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 385
10.23.2 Transformers …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 387
Contents xix
10.23.3 Power Distribution System Protection ………………………………………………………………………….. 388
10.23.3.1 Fuses…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 389
10.23.3.2 Circuit Breakers……………………………………………………………………………………… 389
10.23.3.3 Control Devices……………………………………………………………………………………… 389
Chapter Review Questions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 389
References and Suggested Reading……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 390
Chapter 11 Hydraulic Machines: Pumps………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 391
11.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 391
11.2 Basic Pumping Calculations……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 391
11.2.1 Velocity of a Fluid through a Pipeline ………………………………………………………………………….. 391
11.2.2 Pressure–Velocity Relationship……………………………………………………………………………………. 392
11.2.3 Static Head ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 392
11.2.3.1 Static Suction Head ………………………………………………………………………………… 392
11.2.3.2 Static Suction Lift…………………………………………………………………………………… 392
11.2.3.3 Static Discharge Head …………………………………………………………………………….. 393
11.2.4 Friction Head…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 393
11.2.5 Velocity Head ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 394
11.2.6 Total Head ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 394
11.2.7 Conversion of Pressure Head ………………………………………………………………………………………. 394
11.2.8 Horsepower……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 394
11.2.8.1 Hydraulic (Water) Horsepower (WHP)……………………………………………………… 395
11.2.8.2 Brake Horsepower (BHP)………………………………………………………………………… 395
11.2.9 Specific Speed …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 395
11.2.9.1 Suction Specific Speed……………………………………………………………………………. 395
11.2.10 Affinity Laws—Centrifugal Pumps……………………………………………………………………………… 396
11.2.11 Net Positive Suction Head …………………………………………………………………………………………… 396
11.2.11.1 Calculating NPSHA ……………………………………………………………………………….. 396
11.2.12 Pumps in Series and Parallel……………………………………………………………………………………….. 398
11.3 Centrifugal Pumps…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 398
11.3.1 Description ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 398
11.3.2 Terminology ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 399
11.3.3 Pump Theory……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..400
11.3.4 Pump Characteristics ………………………………………………………………………………………………….400
11.3.4.1 Head (Capacity)………………………………………………………………………………………400
11.3.4.2 Efficiency……………………………………………………………………………………………….400
11.3.4.3 Brake Horsepower Requirements……………………………………………………………… 401
11.3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Centrifugal Pump……………………………………………………… 401
11.3.6 Centrifugal Pump Applications……………………………………………………………………………………. 402
11.3.7 Pump Control Systems……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 402
11.3.7.1 Float Control………………………………………………………………………………………….. 403
11.3.7.2 Pneumatic Controls………………………………………………………………………………… 403
11.3.7.3 Electrode Control Systems……………………………………………………………………….404
11.3.7.4 Other Control Systems…………………………………………………………………………….404
11.3.8 Electronic Control Systems………………………………………………………………………………………….404
11.3.8.1 Flow Equalization System………………………………………………………………………..404
11.3.8.2 Sonar or Other Transmission Type Controllers……………………………………………404
11.3.8.3 Motor Controllers…………………………………………………………………………………… 405
11.3.8.4 Protective Instrumentation ………………………………………………………………………. 405
11.3.8.5 Temperature Detectors……………………………………………………………………………. 405
11.3.8.6 Vibration Monitors…………………………………………………………………………………. 405
11.3.8.7 Supervisory Instrumentation……………………………………………………………………. 405
11.3.9 Centrifugal Pump Modifications………………………………………………………………………………….. 405
11.3.9.1 Submersible Pumps…………………………………………………………………………………406
11.3.9.2 Recessed Impeller or Vortex Pumps………………………………………………………….406
11.3.9.3 Turbine Pumps ………………………………………………………………………………………. 407
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11.4 Positive-Displacement Pumps…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 407
11.4.1 Piston Pump or Reciprocating Pump ……………………………………………………………………………. 407
11.4.2 Diaphragm Pump ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 407
11.4.3 Peristaltic Pumps……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 408
11.5 Chapter Review Questions ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 408
References and Recommended Reading ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 408
Chapter 12 Water/Wastewater Conveyance …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….411
12.1 Delivering the Lifeblood of Civilization ………………………………………………………………………………………411
12.2 Conveyance Systems …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………411
12.3 Definitions……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….412
12.4 Fluids vs. Liquids ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..414
12.5 Maintaining Fluid Flow in Piping Systems…………………………………………………………………………………..414
12.5.1 Scaling……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….414
12.5.2 Piping System Maintenance………………………………………………………………………………………….415
12.6 Piping System Accessories…………………………………………………………………………………………………………415
12.7 Piping System Temperature Effects and Insulation ……………………………………………………………………….416
12.8 Metallic Piping …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………416
12.8.1 Piping Materials………………………………………………………………………………………………………….416
12.8.2 Piping: The Basics……………………………………………………………………………………………………….416
12.8.3 Pipe Sizes …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..417
12.8.3.1 Pipe Wall Thickness…………………………………………………………………………………417
12.8.3.2 Piping Classification…………………………………………………………………………………417
12.8.4 Types of Piping Systems ………………………………………………………………………………………………418
12.8.4.1 Code for Identification of Pipelines…………………………………………………………….418
12.8.5 Metallic Piping Materials……………………………………………………………………………………………..418
12.8.6 Characteristics of Metallic Materials……………………………………………………………………………..419
12.8.6.1 Cast Iron Pipe………………………………………………………………………………………… 420
12.8.6.2 Ductile Iron Pipe ……………………………………………………………………………………. 420
12.8.6.3 Steel Pipe………………………………………………………………………………………………. 420
12.8.7 Maintenance Characteristics of Metallic Piping…………………………………………………………….. 420
12.8.7.1 Expansion and Flexibility………………………………………………………………………… 420
12.8.7.2 Pipe Support Systems……………………………………………………………………………… 420
12.8.7.3 Valve Selection………………………………………………………………………………………. 420
12.8.7.4 Isolation………………………………………………………………………………………………… 420
12.8.7.5 Preventing Backflow ………………………………………………………………………………. 420
12.8.7.6 Water Hammer………………………………………………………………………………………. 421
12.8.7.7 Air Binding……………………………………………………………………………………………. 421
12.8.7.8 Corrosion Effects……………………………………………………………………………………. 421
12.8.8 Joining Metallic Pipe …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 421
12.8.8.1 Bell-and-Spigot Joints…………………………………………………………………………….. 422
12.8.8.2 Screwed or Threaded Joints…………………………………………………………………….. 422
12.8.8.3 Flanged Joints………………………………………………………………………………………… 422
12.8.8.4 Welded Joints…………………………………………………………………………………………. 423
12.8.8.5 Soldered and Brazed Joints……………………………………………………………………… 423
12.9 Nonmetallic Piping………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 423
12.9.1 Nonmetallic Piping Materials……………………………………………………………………………………… 423
12.9.1.1 Clay Pipe ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 423
12.9.1.2 Concrete Pipe ………………………………………………………………………………………… 424
12.9.1.3 Plastic Pipe ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 426
12.10 Tubing……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 426
12.10.1 Tubing vs. Piping: The Difference ……………………………………………………………………………….. 427
12.10.2 Advantages of Tubing…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 428
12.10.2.1 Mechanical Advantages of Tubing……………………………………………………………. 428
12.10.2.2 Chemical Advantages of Tubing ………………………………………………………………. 428
12.10.3 Connecting Tubing …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 429
Contents xxi
12.10.3.1 Cutting Tubing……………………………………………………………………………………….. 429
12.10.3.2 Soldering Tubing ……………………………………………………………………………………. 429
12.10.3.3 Connecting Flared/Nonflared Joints…………………………………………………………. 429
12.10.4 Bending Tubing …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 430
12.10.5 Types of Tubing…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 430
12.10.6 Typical Tubing Applications …………………………………………………………………………………………431
12.11 Industrial Hoses………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..431
12.11.1 Hose Nomenclature ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..431
12.11.2 Factors Governing Hose Selection ……………………………………………………………………………….. 432
12.11.3 Standards, Codes, and Sizes………………………………………………………………………………………… 433
12.11.3.1 Hose Size………………………………………………………………………………………………. 433
12.11.3.2 Hose Classifications ……………………………………………………………………………….. 433
12.11.3.3 Nonmetallic Hose…………………………………………………………………………………… 433
12.11.3.4 Metallic Hose ………………………………………………………………………………………… 434
12.11.4 Hose Couplings …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 435
12.11.5 Hose Maintenance……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 435
12.12 Pipe and Tube Fittings……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 435
12.12.1 Fittings……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 436
12.12.2 Functions of Fittings…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 436
12.12.2.1 Changing the Direction of Flow……………………………………………………………….. 436
12.12.2.2 Providing Branch Connections ………………………………………………………………… 436
12.12.2.3 Changing the Sizes of Lines…………………………………………………………………….. 436
12.12.2.4 Sealing Lines…………………………………………………………………………………………. 436
12.12.2.5 Connecting Lines …………………………………………………………………………………… 437
12.12.3 Pipe Fittings and Connections……………………………………………………………………………………… 437
12.12.3.1 Screwed Fittings…………………………………………………………………………………….. 437
12.12.3.2 Flanged Connections………………………………………………………………………………. 437
12.12.3.3 Welded Connections……………………………………………………………………………….. 437
12.12.4 Tubing Fittings and Connections………………………………………………………………………………….. 437
12.13 Valves ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 438
12.13.1 Valve Construction…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 439
12.13.2 Types of Valves …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 439
12.13.2.1 Ball Valves……………………………………………………………………………………………….440
12.13.2.2 Gate Valves………………………………………………………………………………………………440
12.13.2.3 Globe Valves…………………………………………………………………………………………….440
12.13.2.4 Needle Valves…………………………………………………………………………………………..440
12.13.2.5 Butterfly Valves ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 441
12.13.2.6 Plug Valves ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 441
12.13.2.7 Check Valves …………………………………………………………………………………………… 441
12.13.2.8 Quick-Opening Valves………………………………………………………………………………. 441
12.13.2.9 Diaphragm Valves ……………………………………………………………………………………. 441
12.13.2.10 Regulating Valves…………………………………………………………………………………….. 441
12.13.2.11 Relief Valves……………………………………………………………………………………………. 442
12.13.2.12 Reducing Valves ………………………………………………………………………………………. 442
12.13.3 Valve Operators…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 442
12.13.3.1 Pneumatic and Hydraulic Valve Operators………………………………………………… 443
12.13.3.2 Magnetic Valve Operators……………………………………………………………………….. 443
12.13.4 Valve Maintenance…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 443
12.14 Piping System Protective Devices……………………………………………………………………………………………… 443
12.14.1 Applications………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 443
12.14.2 Strainers …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 443
12.14.3 Filters………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..444
12.14.4 Traps…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………444
12.14.4.1 Trap Maintenance and Testing …………………………………………………………………. 445
12.15 Piping Ancillaries……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 445
12.15.1 Gauges as Indicators of System Performance ………………………………………………………………… 445
12.15.2 Pressure Gauges…………………………………………………………………………………………………………446
xxii Contents
12.15.2.1 Spring-Operated Pressure Gauges …………………………………………………………….446
12.15.2.2 Bourdon Tube Gauges……………………………………………………………………………..446
12.15.2.3 Bellows Gauge……………………………………………………………………………………….. 447
12.15.2.4 Plunger Gauge ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 447
12.15.3 Temperature Gauges…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 447
12.15.4 Vacuum Breakers ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 448
12.15.5 Accumulators ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 448
12.15.6 Air Receivers…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 448
12.15.7 Heat Exchangers………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 449
Chapter Review Questions/Problems…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 449
References and Recommended Reading ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 450
Section III Characteristics of Water
Chapter 13 Basic Water Chemistry………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 453
13.1 Chemistry Concepts and Definitions………………………………………………………………………………………….. 453
13.1.1 Concepts…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 453
13.1.1.1 Miscible and Solubility …………………………………………………………………………… 453
13.1.1.2 Suspension, Sediment, Particles, and Solids………………………………………………. 453
13.1.1.3 Emulsion……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 453
13.1.1.4 Ion………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 454
13.1.1.5 Mass Concentration………………………………………………………………………………… 454
13.1.2 Definitions………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 454
13.2 Chemistry Fundamentals …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 455
13.2.1 Matter………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 455
13.2.2 Content of Matter: The Elements…………………………………………………………………………………. 455
13.2.3 Compound Substances ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 457
13.3 Water Solutions……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 458
13.4 Water Constituents…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 458
13.4.1 Solids……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 459
13.4.2 Turbidity …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 459
13.4.3 Color………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 459
13.4.4 Dissolved Oxygen………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 459
13.4.5 Metals………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 460
13.4.6 Organic Matter………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 460
13.4.7 Inorganic Matter………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 460
13.4.8 Acids………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 460
13.4.9 Bases………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 460
13.4.10 Salts…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 461
13.4.11 pH……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 462
13.5 Common Water Measurements…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 462
13.5.1 Alkalinity …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 463
13.5.2 Water Temperature …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 463
13.5.3 Specific Conductance …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 463
13.5.4 Hardness…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 463
13.5.5 Odor Control (Wastewater Treatment)………………………………………………………………………….. 463
13.6 Water Treatment Chemicals………………………………………………………………………………………………………464
13.6.1 Disinfection ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….464
13.6.2 Coagulation ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….464
13.6.3 Taste and Odor Removal ……………………………………………………………………………………………..464
13.6.4 Water Softening…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 465
13.6.4.1 Chemical Precipitation……………………………………………………………………………. 465
13.6.4.2 Ion Exchange Softening ………………………………………………………………………….. 465
13.6.5 Recarbonation …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 465
13.6.6 Scale and Corrosion Control ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 465
13.7 Chemical Drinking Water Parameters……………………………………………………………………………………….. 466
Contents xxiii
13.7.1 Organics …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 466
13.7.2 Synthetic Organic Chemicals………………………………………………………………………………………. 467
13.7.3 Volatile Organic Compounds………………………………………………………………………………………. 467
13.7.4 Total Dissolved Solids………………………………………………………………………………………………… 467
13.7.5 Fluorides…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 467
13.7.6 Heavy Metals…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 467
13.7.7 Nutrients…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 468
Chapter Review Questions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 469
References and Suggested Reading……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 469
Chapter 14 Water Microbiology…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 471
14.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 471
14.2 Microbiology: What Is It? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 471
14.3 Water/Wastewater Microorganisms …………………………………………………………………………………………… 472
14.4 Key Terms………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 472
14.5 Microorganism Classification and Differentiation……………………………………………………………………….. 472
14.5.1 Classification …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 473
14.5.2 Differentiation …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 474
14.6 The Cell …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 474
14.6.1 Structure of the Bacterial Cell …………………………………………………………………………………….. 474
14.6.1.1 Capsules ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 474
14.6.1.2 Flagella …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 474
14.6.1.3 Cell Wall……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 475
14.6.1.4 Plasma Membrane (Cytoplasmic Membrane)…………………………………………….. 475
14.6.1.5 Cytoplasm……………………………………………………………………………………………… 475
14.6.1.6 Mesosome……………………………………………………………………………………………… 475
14.6.1.7 Nucleoid (Nuclear Body or Region)………………………………………………………….. 475
14.6.1.8 Ribosomes…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 475
14.6.1.9 Inclusions………………………………………………………………………………………………. 475
14.7 Bacteria………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 475
14.7.1 Bacterial Growth Factors……………………………………………………………………………………………. 476
14.7.2 Destruction of Bacteria ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 476
14.7.3 Waterborne Bacteria…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 476
14.8 Protozoa…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 477
14.9 Microscopic Crustaceans …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 478
14.10 Viruses…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 478
14.11 Algae……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 479
14.12 Fungi……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 479
14.13 Nematodes and Flatworms (Worms)………………………………………………………………………………………….. 479
14.14 Water Treatment and Microbiological Processes…………………………………………………………………………. 480
14.14.1 Pathogenic Protozoa…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 480
14.14.2 Giardia …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 481
14.14.2.1 Giardiasis………………………………………………………………………………………………. 481
14.14.3 Cryptosporidium ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 485
14.14.3.1 Basics of Cryptosporidium………………………………………………………………………. 486
14.14.3.2 Cryptosporidiosis …………………………………………………………………………………… 487
14.14.4 Cyclospora ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 487
14.14.5 Helminths…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 488
14.15 Wastewater Treatment and Microbiological Processes…………………………………………………………………. 488
14.15.1 Aerobic Process…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 488
14.15.2 Anaerobic Process……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 488
14.15.3 Anoxic Process………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 489
14.15.4 Photosynthesis…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 489
14.15.5 Growth Cycles…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 489
14.15.6 Biogeochemical Cycles ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 489
14.15.7 Carbon Cycle…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 489
xxiv Contents
14.15.8 Nitrogen Cycle…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 490
14.15.9 Sulfur Cycle………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 491
14.15.10 Phosphorus Cycle ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 491
Chapter Review Questions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 492
References and Suggested Reading……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 492
Chapter 15 Water Ecology ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 495
15.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 495
15.2 What Is Ecology? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 495
15.3 Why Is Ecology Important? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 496
15.4 Why Study Ecology? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 497
15.4.1 Leaf Processing in Streams…………………………………………………………………………………………. 497
15.5 History of Ecology ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 499
15.5.1 Example Ecosystem: Agrosystem Model………………………………………………………………………. 500
15.5.1.1 Agroecosystem Characteristics………………………………………………………………… 500
15.5.1.2 Ecosystem Pattern and Process………………………………………………………………… 500
15.6 Levels of Organization …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 501
15.7 Ecosystems…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 501
15.8 Energy Flow in the Ecosystem………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 502
15.9 Food Chain Efficiency……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 503
15.10 Ecological Pyramids………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 503
15.11 Productivity ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 504
15.12 Population Ecology………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 504
15.13 Stream Genesis and Structure …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 507
15.13.1 Water Flow in a Stream………………………………………………………………………………………………. 508
15.13.2 Stream Water Discharge……………………………………………………………………………………………… 509
15.13.3 Transport of Material …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 509
15.13.4 Characteristics of Stream Channels……………………………………………………………………………… 509
15.13.5 Stream Profiles……………………………………………………………………………………………………………510
15.13.6 Sinuosity…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….510
15.13.7 Bars, Riffles, and Pools………………………………………………………………………………………………..510
15.13.8 Flood Plain …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………510
15.13.9 Adaptations to Stream Current………………………………………………………………………………………513
15.13.10 Types of Adaptive Changes…………………………………………………………………………………………..513
15.13.11 Specific Adaptations…………………………………………………………………………………………………….513
15.14 Benthic Life ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..514
15.15 Benthic Plants and Animals……………………………………………………………………………………………………….514
15.16 Benthic Macroinvertebrates ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….514
15.16.1 Identification of Benthic Macroinvertebrates…………………………………………………………………. 515
15.16.2 Macroinvertebrates and the Food Web …………………………………………………………………………..516
15.16.3 Units of Organization…………………………………………………………………………………………………..516
15.17 Typical Benthic Macroinvertebrates in Running Waters………………………………………………………………..516
15.17.1 Macroinvertebrate Glossary………………………………………………………………………………………….516
15.17.2 Insect Macroinvertebrates…………………………………………………………………………………………….517
15.17.2.1 Mayflies (Order: Ephemeroptera)……………………………………………………………….517
15.17.2.2 Stoneflies (Order: Plecoptera)…………………………………………………………………….518
15.17.2.3 Caddisflies (Order: Trichoptera)…………………………………………………………………518
15.17.2.4 True Flies (Order: Diptera)………………………………………………………………………..519
15.17.2.5 Beetles (Order: Coleoptera)……………………………………………………………………… 520
15.17.2.6 Water Strider (“Jesus Bugs”) Order: Hemiptera) ………………………………………… 521
15.17.2.7 Alderflies and Dobsonflies (Order: Megaloptera)……………………………………….. 522
15.17.2.8 Dragonflies and Damselflies (Order: Odonata)…………………………………………… 522
15.17.3 Non-Insect Macroinvertebrates……………………………………………………………………………………. 523
15.17.3.1 Oligochaeta (Family Tubificidae, Genus Tubifex)……………………………………….. 523
15.17.3.2 Hirudinea (Leeches)……………………………………………………………………………….. 523
15.17.3.3 Gastropoda (Lung-Breathing Snail)………………………………………………………….. 523
Contents xxv
15.18 Summary of Key Terms…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 524
Chapter Review Questions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 524
References and Recommended Reading ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 525
Chapter 16 Water Quality …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 527
16.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 527
16.2 Water Cycle ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 528
16.3 Water Quality Standards ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 529
16.3.1 Clean Water Act ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 529
16.3.2 Safe Drinking Water Act…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 530
16.3.2.1 Implementing the Safe Drinking Water Act ………………………………………………. 530
16.4 Water Quality Characteristics of Water and Wastewater………………………………………………………………. 533
16.4.1 Physical Characteristics of Water and Wastewater …………………………………………………………. 533
16.4.1.1 Solids……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 533
16.4.1.2 Turbidity ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 533
16.4.1.3 Color…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 537
16.4.1.4 Taste and Odor ………………………………………………………………………………………. 537
16.4.1.5 Temperature…………………………………………………………………………………………… 538
16.4.2 Chemical Characteristics of Water……………………………………………………………………………….. 539
16.4.2.1 Total Dissolved Solids…………………………………………………………………………….. 539
16.4.2.2 Alkalinity ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 539
16.4.2.3 Hardness……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 540
16.4.2.4 Fluoride ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 540
16.4.2.5 Metals…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 540
16.4.2.6 Organics ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 541
16.4.2.7 Nutrients……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 541
16.4.3 Chemical Characteristics of Wastewater……………………………………………………………………….. 542
16.4.3.1 Organic Substances………………………………………………………………………………… 542
16.4.3.2 Inorganic Substances………………………………………………………………………………. 543
16.4.4 Biological Characteristics of Water and Wastewater ………………………………………………………. 544
16.4.4.1 Bacteria…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 544
16.4.4.2 Viruses………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 544
16.4.4.3 Protozoa………………………………………………………………………………………………… 545
16.4.4.4 Worms (Helminths)………………………………………………………………………………… 545
Chapter Review Questions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 545
References and Suggested Reading……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 545
Chapter 17 Biomonitoring, Monitoring, Sampling, and Testing ………………………………………………………………………………. 547
17.1 What Is Biomonitoring? …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 547
17.1.1 Advantages of Using Periphyton………………………………………………………………………………….. 547
17.1.2 Advantages of Using Fish……………………………………………………………………………………………. 547
17.1.3 Advantages of Using Macroinvertebrates……………………………………………………………………… 548
17.2 Periphyton Protocols ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 548
17.3 Fish Protocols…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 549
17.4 Macroinvertebrate Protocols …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 549
17.4.1 Biotic Index ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 549
17.4.1.1 Metrics within the Benthic Macroinvertebrates………………………………………….. 550
17.5 Biological Sampling in Streams………………………………………………………………………………………………….551
17.5.1 Biological Sampling Planning……………………………………………………………………………………….551
17.5.2 Sampling Stations………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 552
17.5.3 Sampling Frequency and Notes……………………………………………………………………………………. 553
17.5.4 Macroinvertebrate Sampling Equipment ………………………………………………………………………. 553
17.5.5 Macroinvertebrate Sampling in Rocky-Bottom Streams…………………………………………………. 553
17.5.5.1 Rocky-Bottom Habitat Assessment…………………………………………………………… 555
17.5.6 Macroinvertebrate Sampling in Muddy-Bottom Streams………………………………………………… 557
17.5.6.1 Muddy-Bottom Stream Habitat Assessment ………………………………………………. 559
xxvi Contents
17.5.7 Post-Sampling Routine……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 560
17.5.8 Sampling Devices………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 560
17.5.8.1 Dissolved Oxygen and Temperature Monitor …………………………………………….. 560
17.5.8.2 Sampling Nets……………………………………………………………………………………….. 561
17.5.8.3 Sediment Samplers (Dredges)………………………………………………………………….. 561
17.5.8.4 Plankton Sampler …………………………………………………………………………………… 562
17.5.8.5 Secchi Disk……………………………………………………………………………………………. 562
17.5.8.6 Miscellaneous Sampling Equipment…………………………………………………………. 562
17.5.9 Bottom Line on Biological Sampling……………………………………………………………………………. 563
17.6 Drinking Water Quality Monitoring ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 563
17.6.1 Is the Water Good or Bad? ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 563
17.6.2 State Water Quality Standards Programs ……………………………………………………………………… 564
17.6.3 Designing a Water Quality Monitoring Program……………………………………………………………. 565
17.7 General Preparation and Sampling Considerations………………………………………………………………………. 565
17.7.1 Cleaning Procedures………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 565
17.7.1.1 Method A: General Preparation of Sampling Containers…………………………….. 565
17.7.1.2 Method B: Acid Wash Procedures……………………………………………………………. 566
17.7.2 Sample Types ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 566
17.7.3 Collecting Samples from a Stream……………………………………………………………………………….. 566
17.7.3.1 Whirl-Pak® Bags……………………………………………………………………………………. 566
17.7.3.2 Screw-Cap Bottles………………………………………………………………………………….. 566
17.7.4 Sample Preservation and Storage…………………………………………………………………………………. 567
17.7.5 Standardization of Methods………………………………………………………………………………………… 568
17.8 Test Methods for Drinking Water and Wastewater………………………………………………………………………. 568
17.8.1 Titrimetric Methods…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 568
17.8.2 Colorimetric Methods………………………………………………………………………………………………… 568
17.8.3 Visual Methods …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 568
17.8.4 Electronic Methods ……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 568
17.8.5 Dissolved Oxygen Testing…………………………………………………………………………………………… 568
17.8.5.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations………………………………………………….. 569
17.8.5.2 Winkler Method (Azide Modification)………………………………………………………. 569
17.8.5.3 Meter and Probe …………………………………………………………………………………….. 570
17.8.6 Biochemical Oxygen Demand Testing………………………………………………………………………….. 572
17.8.6.1 Sampling Considerations…………………………………………………………………………. 572
17.8.6.2 BOD Sampling, Analysis, and Testing………………………………………………………. 572
17.8.6.3 BOD5 Calculation (Unseeded) …………………………………………………………………. 573
17.8.6.4 BOD5 Calculation (Seeded)……………………………………………………………………… 573
17.8.7 Temperature Measurement………………………………………………………………………………………….. 574
17.8.7.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations………………………………………………….. 574
17.8.8 Hardness Measurement………………………………………………………………………………………………. 574
17.8.9 pH Measurement ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 575
17.8.9.1 Analytical and Equipment Considerations…………………………………………………. 575
17.8.9.2 pH Meters……………………………………………………………………………………………… 575
17.8.9.3 pH “Pocket Pals” and Color Comparators …………………………………………………. 575
17.8.10 Turbidity Measurement ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 575
17.8.10.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations………………………………………………….. 575
17.8.10.2 Using a Secchi Disk ……………………………………………………………………………….. 576
17.8.10.3 Transparency Tube …………………………………………………………………………………. 576
17.8.11 Orthophosphate Measurement …………………………………………………………………………………….. 576
17.8.11.1 Forms of Phosphorus………………………………………………………………………………. 577
17.8.11.2 Phosphorus Cycle …………………………………………………………………………………… 577
17.8.11.3 Testing Phosphorus…………………………………………………………………………………. 577
17.8.11.4 Sampling and Equipment Considerations………………………………………………….. 577
17.8.11.5 Ascorbic Acid Method for Determining Orthophosphate ……………………………. 578
17.8.12 Nitrates Measurement ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 578
17.8.12.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations………………………………………………….. 578
17.8.12.2 Cadmium Reduction Method …………………………………………………………………… 578
Contents xxvii
17.8.12.3 Nitrate Electrode Method………………………………………………………………………… 579
17.8.13 Solids Measurement …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 579
17.8.13.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations………………………………………………….. 580
17.8.13.2 Total Suspended Solids …………………………………………………………………………… 580
17.8.13.3 Volatile Suspended Solids Testing ……………………………………………………………. 581
17.8.14 Conductivity Testing ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 582
17.8.14.1 Sampling, Testing, and Equipment Considerations……………………………………… 582
17.8.15 Total Alkalinity…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 583
17.8.15.1 Analytical and Equipment Considerations…………………………………………………. 583
17.8.16 Fecal Coliform Bacteria Testing ………………………………………………………………………………….. 583
17.8.16.1 USEPA’s Total Coliform Rule ………………………………………………………………….. 584
17.8.16.2 Sampling and Equipment Considerations………………………………………………….. 585
17.8.16.3 Fecal Coliform Bacteria Testing Methods…………………………………………………. 586
17.8.17 Apparent Color Testing and Analysis …………………………………………………………………………… 590
17.8.18 Odor Analysis of Water………………………………………………………………………………………………. 591
17.8.19 Chlorine Residual Testing and Analysis……………………………………………………………………….. 592
17.8.19.1 DPD–Spectrophotometry………………………………………………………………………… 592
17.8.19.2 DPD–FAS Titration………………………………………………………………………………… 593
17.8.19.3 Titrimetric–Amperometric Direct Titration……………………………………………….. 593
17.8.20 Fluorides…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 593
Chapter Review Questions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 594
References and Suggested Reading……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 594
Section IV Water and Water Treatment
Chapter 18 Potable Water Source ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 599
18.1 Earth’s Blood ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 599
18.2 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 599
18.2.1 Key Terms and Definitions…………………………………………………………………………………………..600
18.3 Hydrologic Cycle ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..600
18.4 Sources of Water……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 601
18.5 Surface Water …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 602
18.5.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Surface Water…………………………………………………………… 602
18.5.2 Surface Water Hydrology……………………………………………………………………………………………. 602
18.5.3 Raw Water Storage …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 602
18.5.4 Surface Water Intakes ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 602
18.5.5 Surface Water Screens…………………………………………………………………………………………………604
18.5.6 Surface Water Quality…………………………………………………………………………………………………604
18.6 Groundwater……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………604
18.6.1 Groundwater Quality………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 605
18.7 Groundwater under the Direct Influence of Surface Water …………………………………………………………… 605
18.8 Surface Water Quality/Treatment Requirements………………………………………………………………………….606
18.8.1 Stage 1 D/DBP Rule……………………………………………………………………………………………………606
18.8.2 Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule ………………………………………………………….. 607
18.8.3 Regulatory Deadlines…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 607
18.9 Public Water System Quality Requirements……………………………………………………………………………….. 607
18.10 Well Systems ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 607
18.10.1 Well Site Requirements………………………………………………………………………………………………. 607
18.10.2 Type of Wells…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 608
18.10.2.1 Shallow Wells………………………………………………………………………………………… 608
18.10.2.2 Deep Wells ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 608
18.10.3 Components of a Well ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 609
18.10.3.1 Well Casing …………………………………………………………………………………………… 609
18.10.3.2 Grout…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 609
18.10.3.3 Well Pad ……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 609
xxviii Contents
18.10.3.4 Sanitary Seal …………………………………………………………………………………………. 609
18.10.3.5 Well Screen …………………………………………………………………………………………….610
18.10.3.6 Casing Vent …………………………………………………………………………………………….610
18.10.3.7 Drop Pipe ……………………………………………………………………………………………….610
18.10.3.8 Miscellaneous Well Components……………………………………………………………….610
18.10.4 Well Evaluation …………………………………………………………………………………………………………..610
18.10.5 Well Pumps ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..610
18.10.6 Routine Operation and Recordkeeping Requirements………………………………………………………610
18.10.7 Well Maintenance………………………………………………………………………………………………………..611
18.10.7.1 Troubleshooting Well Problems…………………………………………………………………611
18.10.8 Well Abandonment………………………………………………………………………………………………………612
Chapter Review Questions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..612
References and Suggested Reading……………………………………………………………………………………………………….612
Chapter 19 Watershed Protection ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….613
19.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..613
19.2 Current Issues in Water Management ………………………………………………………………………………………….613
19.3 What Is a Watershed? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..614
19.3.1 Water Quality Impacts …………………………………………………………………………………………………614
19.4 Watershed Protection and Regulations…………………………………………………………………………………………614
19.5 A Watershed Protection Plan………………………………………………………………………………………………………614
19.6 Reservoir Management Practices………………………………………………………………………………………………..615
19.7 Watershed Management Practices……………………………………………………………………………………………….615
19.8 Eight Tools of Watershed Protection……………………………………………………………………………………………615
19.8.1 Tool 1—Land Use Planning………………………………………………………………………………………….615
19.8.2 Tool 2—Land Conservation………………………………………………………………………………………….616
19.8.3 Tool 3—Aquatic Buffers………………………………………………………………………………………………617
19.8.4 Tool 4—Better Site Design …………………………………………………………………………………………..617
19.8.5 Tool 5—Erosion and Sediment Control………………………………………………………………………….617
19.8.6 Tool 6—Stormwater Management Practices …………………………………………………………………..617
19.8.7 Tool 7—Non-Stormwater Discharges…………………………………………………………………………….618
19.8.7.1 Septic Systems…………………………………………………………………………………………618
19.8.7.2 Sanitary Sewers……………………………………………………………………………………….618
19.8.7.3 Other Non-Stormwater Discharges…………………………………………………………….618
19.8.8 Tool 8—Watershed Stewardship Programs …………………………………………………………………….618
Chapter Review Questions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..619
References and Recommended Reading ………………………………………………………………………………………………..619
Chapter 20 Water Treatment Operations ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 621
20.1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 621
20.2 Waterworks Operators……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 621
20.3 Purpose of Water Treatment……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 622
20.4 Stages of Water Treatment………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 622
20.5 Pretreatment …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 623
20.5.1 Aeration……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 623
20.5.2 Screening………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 623
20.5.3 Chemical Addition …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 624
20.5.3.1 Chemical Solutions…………………………………………………………………………………. 624
20.5.3.2 Chemical Feeders…………………………………………………………………………………… 625
20.5.3.3 Types of Chemical Feeders……………………………………………………………………… 625
20.5.3.4 Chemical Feeder Calibration …………………………………………………………………… 625
20.5.3.5 Calibration Procedures……………………………………………………………………………. 626
20.5.3.6 Iron and Manganese Removal………………………………………………………………….. 627
20.5.3.7 Iron and Manganese Removal Techniques…………………………………………………. 627
20.5.3.8 Hardness Treatment………………………………………………………………………………… 628
Contents xxix
20.5.3.9 Corrosion………………………………………………………………………………………………. 629
20.5.3.10 Corrosion Control…………………………………………………………………………………… 630
20.6 Coagulation…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 631
20.7 Flocculation ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 633
20.8 Sedimentation…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 634
20.9 Filtration ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 634
20.9.1 Types of Filter Technologies ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 635
20.9.1.1 Slow Sand Filters……………………………………………………………………………………. 635
20.9.1.2 Rapid Sand Filters………………………………………………………………………………….. 635
20.9.1.3 Pressure Filter Systems…………………………………………………………………………… 636
20.9.1.4 Diatomaceous Earth Filters……………………………………………………………………… 636
20.9.1.5 Direct Filtration……………………………………………………………………………………… 637
20.9.1.6 Alternative Filters…………………………………………………………………………………… 637
20.9.2 Common Filter Problems……………………………………………………………………………………………. 637
20.9.3 Filtration and Compliance with IESWTR Turbidity Requirements………………………………….. 637
20.9.3.1 IESWTR Regulatory Requirements………………………………………………………….. 638
20.9.3.2 Reporting and Recordkeeping………………………………………………………………….. 639
20.9.3.3 Additional Compliance Issues…………………………………………………………………..640
20.9.3.4 Variances and Exemptions………………………………………………………………………. 642
20.10 Disinfection ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 642
20.10.1 A Sherlock Holmes Type at the Pump …………………………………………………………………………..644
20.10.1.1 Cholera ………………………………………………………………………………………………….644
20.10.1.2 Flashback to 1854 London ……………………………………………………………………….644
20.10.1.3 From Pump Handle Removal to Water Treatment (Disinfection)………………….. 645
20.10.2 Need for Disinfection in Water Treatment……………………………………………………………………..646
20.10.3 Pathogens of Primary Concern …………………………………………………………………………………….646
20.10.4 Recent Waterborne Outbreaks …………………………………………………………………………………….. 647
20.10.4.1 Escherichia coli……………………………………………………………………………………… 647
20.10.4.2 Giardia lamblia……………………………………………………………………………………… 647
20.10.4.3 Cryptosporidium ……………………………………………………………………………………. 648
20.10.4.4 Legionella pneumophila …………………………………………………………………………. 648
20.10.5 Mechanism of Pathogen Inactivation……………………………………………………………………………. 648
20.10.6 Other Uses of Disinfectants in Water Treatment ……………………………………………………………. 648
20.10.6.1 Minimization of Disinfection Byproduct Formation …………………………………… 649
20.10.6.2 Control of Nuisance Asiatic Clams and Zebra Mussels……………………………….. 649
20.10.6.3 Oxidation of Iron and Manganese…………………………………………………………….. 650
20.10.6.4 Prevention of Regrowth in the Distribution System
and Maintenance of Biological Stability……………………………………………………. 650
20.10.6.5 Removal of Taste and Odors through Chemical Oxidation ………………………….. 651
20.10.6.6 Improvement of Coagulation and Filtration Efficiency………………………………… 651
20.10.6.7 Prevention of Algal Growth in Sedimentation Basins and Filters…………………. 651
20.10.6.8 Removal of Color …………………………………………………………………………………… 651
20.10.7 Types of DBPs and Disinfection Residuals……………………………………………………………………. 651
20.10.8 Disinfection Byproduct Formation……………………………………………………………………………….. 652
20.10.8.1 Disinfection Byproduct Precursors…………………………………………………………… 653
20.10.8.2 Impacts of pH on DBP Formation…………………………………………………………….. 653
20.10.8.3 Organic Oxidation Byproducts ………………………………………………………………… 654
20.10.8.4 Inorganic Byproducts and Disinfectants……………………………………………………. 654
20.10.9 DBP Control Strategies………………………………………………………………………………………………. 654
20.10.9.1 Source Water Quality Control………………………………………………………………….. 654
20.10.9.2 DBP Precursor Removal………………………………………………………………………….. 654
20.10.10 Disinfection Strategy Selection……………………………………………………………………………………. 655
20.10.11 CT Factor………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 655
20.10.12 Disinfectant Residual Regulatory Requirements……………………………………………………………. 656
20.10.13 Summary of Current National Disinfection Practices…………………………………………………….. 656
20.10.14 Summary of Methods of Disinfection…………………………………………………………………………… 657
20.10.15 Chlorination………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 657
xxx Contents
20.10.15.1 Chlorine Terminology…………………………………………………………………………….. 657
20.10.15.2 Chlorine Chemistry………………………………………………………………………………… 658
20.10.15.3 Breakpoint Chlorination………………………………………………………………………….. 659
20.10.15.4 Breakpoint Chlorination Curve………………………………………………………………… 659
20.10.15.5 Gas Chlorination ……………………………………………………………………………………. 659
20.10.15.6 Hypochlorination……………………………………………………………………………………. 660
20.10.15.7 Determining Chlorine Dosage …………………………………………………………………. 661
20.10.15.8 Chlorine Generation……………………………………………………………………………….. 663
20.10.15.9 Primary Uses and Points of Application of Chlorine ………………………………….. 663
20.10.15.10 Factors Affecting Chlorination …………………………………………………………………664
20.10.15.11 Measuring Chlorine Residual …………………………………………………………………..664
20.10.15.12 Pathogen Inactivation and Disinfection Efficacy …………………………………………664
20.10.15.13 Disinfection Byproducts………………………………………………………………………….. 665
20.10.15.14 Application Methods………………………………………………………………………………. 666
20.10.15.15 Safety and Handling Considerations…………………………………………………………. 667
20.10.15.16 Advantages and Disadvantages of Chlorine Use ………………………………………… 667
20.10.15.17 Chlorine Summary Table ………………………………………………………………………… 668
20.11 Arsenic Removal from Drinking Water……………………………………………………………………………………… 668
20.11.1 Arsenic Exposure ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 668
20.11.2 Arsenic Removal Technologies……………………………………………………………………………………. 669
20.11.2.1 Prescriptive Processes…………………………………………………………………………….. 669
20.11.2.2 Adsorptive Processes………………………………………………………………………………. 670
20.11.2.3 Membrane Processes………………………………………………………………………………. 671
20.11.2.4 Alternative Technologies…………………………………………………………………………. 671
20.12 Who Is Ultimately Responsible for Drinking Water Quality?……………………………………………………….. 673
Chapter Review Questions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 674
References and Suggested Reading……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 676
Section V Wastewater and Wastewater Treatment
Chapter 21 Wastewater Treatment Operations ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 681
21.1 Wastewater Operators………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 681
21.1.1 Wastewater Treatment Process: The Model…………………………………………………………………… 681
21.2 Wastewater Terminology and Definitions…………………………………………………………………………………… 681
21.3 Measuring Plant Performance …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 684
21.3.1 Plant Performance and Efficiency………………………………………………………………………………… 684
21.3.2 Unit Process Performance and Efficiency……………………………………………………………………… 685
21.3.3 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge …………………………………………………………………. 685
21.3.4 Hydraulic Detention Time…………………………………………………………………………………………… 685
21.3.4.1 Hydraulic Detention Time in Days……………………………………………………………. 685
21.3.4.2 Hydraulic Detention Time in Hours………………………………………………………….. 685
21.3.4.3 Detention Time in Minutes ……………………………………………………………………… 685
21.4 Wastewater Sources and Characteristics…………………………………………………………………………………….. 686
21.4.1 Wastewater Sources……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 686
21.4.1.1 Generation of Wastewater ……………………………………………………………………….. 686
21.4.1.2 Classification of Wastewater ……………………………………………………………………. 686
21.4.2 Wastewater Characteristics …………………………………………………………………………………………. 687
21.4.2.1 Physical Characteristics ………………………………………………………………………….. 687
21.4.2.2 Chemical Characteristics ………………………………………………………………………… 687
21.4.2.3 Biological Characteristics and Processes…………………………………………………… 688
21.5 Wastewater Collection Systems…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 688
21.5.1 Gravity Collection System ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 688
21.5.2 Force Main Collection System…………………………………………………………………………………….. 689
21.5.3 Vacuum System…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 689
Contents xxxi
21.5.4 Pumping Stations ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 689
21.5.4.1 Wet Well/Dry Well Pumping Stations………………………………………………………. 689
21.5.4.2 Wet Well Pumping Stations……………………………………………………………………… 689
21.5.4.3 Pneumatic Pumping Stations …………………………………………………………………… 689
21.5.5 Pumping Station Wet Well Calculations……………………………………………………………………….. 689
21.6 Preliminary Treatment …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 690
21.6.1 Screening………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 690
21.6.1.1 Manually Cleaned Screens………………………………………………………………………. 690
21.6.1.2 Mechanically Cleaned Screens………………………………………………………………… 691
21.6.1.3 Screening Safety…………………………………………………………………………………….. 691
21.6.1.4 Screening Removal Computations……………………………………………………………. 691
21.6.2 Shredding …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 692
21.6.2.1 Comminution…………………………………………………………………………………………. 692
21.6.2.2 Barminution…………………………………………………………………………………………… 692
21.6.3 Grit Removal …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 692
21.6.3.1 Gravity/Velocity-Controlled Grit Removal………………………………………………… 692
21.6.3.2 Aeration………………………………………………………………………………………………… 694
21.6.3.3 Cyclone Degritter …………………………………………………………………………………… 694
21.6.3.4 Grit Removal Calculations………………………………………………………………………. 694
21.6.4.5 Preaeration…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 695
21.6.4.6 Chemical Addition …………………………………………………………………………………. 695
21.6.4.7 Equalization ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 695
21.6.4 Preliminary Treatment Sampling and Testing ……………………………………………………………….. 695
21.6.5 Preliminary Treatment Process Control Calculations……………………………………………………… 696
21.7 Primary Treatment (Sedimentation)…………………………………………………………………………………………… 697
21.7.1 Process Description……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 697
21.7.2 Overview of Primary Treatment ………………………………………………………………………………….. 697
21.7.3 Types of Sedimentation Tanks…………………………………………………………………………………….. 698
21.7.3.1 Septic Tanks………………………………………………………………………………………….. 698
21.7.3.2 Two-Story (Imhoff) Tank………………………………………………………………………… 698
21.7.3.3 Plain Settling Tanks (Clarifiers)……………………………………………………………….. 698
21.7.4 Operator Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting …………………………………………………. 698
21.7.4.1 Primary Clarification Normal Operation…………………………………………………… 698
21.7.4.2 Primary Clarification Operational Parameters (Normal Observations) …………. 699
21.7.5 Process Control Calculations ………………………………………………………………………………………. 699
21.7.5.1 Percent Removal…………………………………………………………………………………….. 699
21.7.5.2 Detention Time………………………………………………………………………………………. 699
21.7.5.3 Surface Loading Rate (Surface Settling Rate, Surface Overflow Rate) …………. 699
21.7.5.4 Weir Overflow Rate (Weir Loading Rate)………………………………………………….. 700
21.7.5.5 Sludge Pumping …………………………………………………………………………………….. 700
21.7.5.6 Percent Total Solids (%TS)………………………………………………………………………. 700
21.7.5.7 BOD and SS Removal…………………………………………………………………………….. 700
21.7.6 Problem Analysis ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 701
21.7.6.1 Causal Factors for Poor Suspended Solids Removal (Primary Clarifier)……….. 701
21.7.6.2 Causal Factors for Floating Sludge …………………………………………………………… 701
21.7.6.3 Causal Factors for Septic Wastewater or Sludge…………………………………………. 701
21.7.6.4 Causal Factors for Too Low Primary Sludge Solids Concentration ………………. 701
21.7.6.5 Causal Factors for Too High Primary Sludge Solids Concentrations…………….. 701
21.7.7 Effluent from Settling Tanks……………………………………………………………………………………….. 701
21.8 Secondary Treatment……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 701
21.8.1 Treatment Ponds………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 702
21.8.1.1 Types of Ponds ………………………………………………………………………………………. 703
21.8.1.2 Ponds Based on Location and Types of Wastes They Receive ……………………… 703
21.8.1.3 Ponds Based on the Type of Processes Occurring Within……………………………. 704
21.8.1.4 Pond Organisms…………………………………………………………………………………….. 705
21.8.1.5 Biochemistry in a Pond …………………………………………………………………………… 706
xxxii Contents
21.8.1.6 Physical Factors……………………………………………………………………………………… 708
21.8.1.7 Pond Nutritional Requirements………………………………………………………………… 709
21.8.1.8 Process Control Calculations for Stabilization Ponds……………………………………710
21.8.1.9 Troubleshooting Wastewater Ponds…………………………………………………………….711
21.8.2 Trickling Filters…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..711
21.8.2.1 Trickling Filter Definitions………………………………………………………………………..711
21.8.2.2 Trickling Filter Equipment………………………………………………………………………. 715
21.8.2.3 Filter Classifications……………………………………………………………………………….. 715
21.8.2.4 Standard Operating Procedures…………………………………………………………………716
21.8.2.5 General Process Description……………………………………………………………………..716
21.8.2.6 Overview and Brief Summary of Trickling Filter Process…………………………….716
21.8.2.7 Operator Observations ……………………………………………………………………………..717
21.8.2.8 Process Control Sampling and Testing ……………………………………………………….717
21.8.2.9 Troubleshooting Operational Problems……………………………………………………….718
21.8.2.10 Process Calculations……………………………………………………………………………….. 720
21.8.3 Rotating Biological Contactors ……………………………………………………………………………………. 722
21.8.3.1 RBC Equipment …………………………………………………………………………………….. 722
21.8.3.2 RBC Operation………………………………………………………………………………………. 723
21.8.3.3 RBC Expected Performance ……………………………………………………………………. 723
21.8.3.4 Operator Observations ……………………………………………………………………………. 723
21.8.3.5 RBC Process Control Sampling and Testing ……………………………………………… 723
21.8.3.6 Troubleshooting Operational Problems……………………………………………………… 723
21.8.3.7 RBC Process Control Calculations…………………………………………………………… 724
21.9 Activated Sludge……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 725
21.9.1 Activated Sludge Terminology…………………………………………………………………………………….. 726
21.9.2 Activated Sludge Process Equipment……………………………………………………………………………. 727
21.9.2.1 Aeration Tank………………………………………………………………………………………… 727
21.9.2.2 Aeration………………………………………………………………………………………………… 727
21.9.2.3 Settling Tank …………………………………………………………………………………………. 727
21.9.2.4 Return Sludge………………………………………………………………………………………… 727
21.9.2.5 Waste Sludge …………………………………………………………………………………………. 728
21.9.3 Overview of Activated Sludge Process…………………………………………………………………………. 728
21.9.4 Factors Affecting Operation of the Activated Sludge Process………………………………………….. 728
21.9.5 Growth Curve……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 728
21.9.6 Activated Sludge Formation………………………………………………………………………………………… 728
21.9.7 Activated Sludge Performance-Controlling Factors……………………………………………………….. 729
21.9.7.1 Aeration………………………………………………………………………………………………… 729
21.9.7.2 Alkalinity ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 729
21.9.7.3 Nutrients……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 729
21.9.7.4 pH………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 729
21.9.7.5 Temperature…………………………………………………………………………………………… 729
21.9.7.6 Toxicity…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 729
21.9.7.7 Hydraulic Loading …………………………………………………………………………………. 729
21.9.7.8 Organic Loading ……………………………………………………………………………………. 729
21.9.8 Activated Sludge Modifications …………………………………………………………………………………… 730
21.9.8.1 Extended Aeration Package Plants……………………………………………………………. 730
21.9.8.2 Oxidation Ditches…………………………………………………………………………………… 732
21.9.9 Activated Sludge Process Control Parameters……………………………………………………………….. 737
21.9.9.1 Alkalinity ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 737
21.9.9.2 Dissolved Oxygen…………………………………………………………………………………… 737
21.9.9.3 pH………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 737
21.9.9.4 Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids, Mixed Liquor Volatile
Suspended Solids, and Mixed Liquor Total Suspended Solids……………………… 737
21.9.9.5 Return Activated Sludge Rate and Concentration……………………………………….. 737
21.9.9.6 Waste Activated Sludge Flow Rate …………………………………………………………… 737
21.9.9.7 Temperature…………………………………………………………………………………………… 737
21.9.9.8 Sludge Blanket Depth……………………………………………………………………………… 737
Contents xxxiii
21.9.10 Activated Sludge Operational Control Levels………………………………………………………………… 738
21.9.10.1 Influent Characteristics …………………………………………………………………………… 738
21.9.10.2 Industrial Contributions ………………………………………………………………………….. 738
21.9.10.3 Process Sidestreams……………………………………………………………………………….. 738
21.9.10.4 Seasonal Variations………………………………………………………………………………… 738
21.9.10.5 Control Levels at Startup…………………………………………………………………………. 738
21.9.11 Visual Indicators for Influent or Aeration Tanks ……………………………………………………………. 739
21.9.11.1 Turbulence …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 739
21.9.11.2 Surface Foam and Scum………………………………………………………………………….. 739
21.9.11.3 Sludge Color and Odor……………………………………………………………………………. 739
21.9.11.4 Mixed Liquor Color………………………………………………………………………………… 739
21.9.12 Final Settling Tank (Clarifier) Observations………………………………………………………………….. 739
21.9.13 Process Control Sampling and Testing …………………………………………………………………………. 739
21.9.13.1 Aeration Influent Sampling ……………………………………………………………………… 740
21.9.13.2 Aeration Tank………………………………………………………………………………………… 740
21.9.13.3 Interpretation…………………………………………………………………………………………..741
21.9.13.4 Settling Tank Influent……………………………………………………………………………… 743
21.9.13.5 Settling Tank …………………………………………………………………………………………. 743
21.9.13.6 Settling Tank Effluent …………………………………………………………………………….. 744
21.9.13.7 Return Activated Sludge and Waste Activated Sludge…………………………………. 744
21.9.13.8 Process Control Adjustments…………………………………………………………………… 744
21.9.13.9 Troubleshooting Operational Problems……………………………………………………… 745
21.9.13.10 Process Control Calculations …………………………………………………………………… 745
21.9.14 Solids Concentration in Secondary Clarifier …………………………………………………………………. 752
21.9.15 Activated Sludge Process Recordkeeping Requirements…………………………………………………. 752
21.10 Disinfection of Wastewater……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 752
21.10.1 Chlorine Disinfection…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 752
21.10.1.1 Chlorination Terminology……………………………………………………………………….. 752
21.10.1.2 Wastewater Chlorination Facts…………………………………………………………………..753
21.10.1.3 Water Chlorination Process Description……………………………………………………..753
21.10.1.4 Chlorination Equipment………………………………………………………………………….. 754
21.10.1.5 Chlorination Operation …………………………………………………………………………… 754
21.10.1.6 Troubleshooting Operation Problems………………………………………………………… 754
21.10.1.7 Chlorination Environmental Hazards and Safety ……………………………………….. 755
21.10.1.8 Chlorination Process Calculations……………………………………………………………. 757
21.10.2 Ultraviolet Irradiation…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 759
21.10.2.1 Advantages……………………………………………………………………………………………. 760
21.10.2.2 Disadvantages………………………………………………………………………………………… 760
21.10.2.2 Applicability………………………………………………………………………………………….. 760
21.10.2.3 Performance Examples……………………………………………………………………………. 760
21.10.2.4 Operation and Maintenance ………………………………………………………………………761
21.10.3 Ozonation …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 762
21.10.3.1 Advantages……………………………………………………………………………………………. 762
21.10.3.2 Disadvantages………………………………………………………………………………………… 762
21.10.3.2 Applicability………………………………………………………………………………………….. 762
21.10.3.3 Performance Example: Indianapolis, Indiana…………………………………………….. 762
21.10.3.4 Operation and Maintenance …………………………………………………………………….. 763
21.10.4 Bromine Chloride………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 763
21.10.5 No Disinfection …………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 763
21.11 Advanced Wastewater Treatment ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 763
21.11.1 Chemical Treatment …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 764
21.11.1.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting………………………….. 764
21.11.2 Microscreening………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 764
21.11.2.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting………………………….. 765
21.11.3 Filtration…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 765
21.11.3.1 Filtration Process Description………………………………………………………………….. 765
21.11.3.2 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting………………………….. 766
xxxiv Contents
21.11.4 Membrane Bioreactors……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 766
21.11.4.1 Advantages……………………………………………………………………………………………. 767
21.11.4.2 Disadvantages………………………………………………………………………………………… 767
21.11.4.3 Applicability………………………………………………………………………………………….. 767
21.11.4.4 Membrane Filtration……………………………………………………………………………….. 767
21.11.4.5 Design Considerations…………………………………………………………………………….. 767
21.11.4.6 Design Features……………………………………………………………………………………… 768
21.11.5 Biological Nitrification……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 769
21.11.5.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting………………………….. 770
21.11.6 Biological Denitrification……………………………………………………………………………………………. 770
21.11.6.1 Operational Observations, Operation, and Troubleshooting…………………………. 770
21.11.7 Carbon Adsorption…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 774
21.11.7.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting………………………….. 774
21.11.8 Land Application……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 774
21.11.8.1 Types and Modes of Land Application ……………………………………………………… 774
21.11.8.2 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting………………………….. 776
21.11.9 Biological Nutrient Removal……………………………………………………………………………………….. 776
21.11.9.1 Description ……………………………………………………………………………………………. 776
21.11.9.2 Process………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 778
21.11.9.3 Performance ………………………………………………………………………………………….. 780
21.11.9.4 Operation and Maintenance …………………………………………………………………….. 781
21.11.10 Enhanced Biological Nutrient Removal………………………………………………………………………… 785
21.11.10.1 0.5-MGD Capacity Plant…………………………………………………………………………. 786
21.11.10.2 1.5-MGD Capacity Plant…………………………………………………………………………. 786
21.11.10.3 1.55-MGD Capacity Plant ……………………………………………………………………….. 786
21.11.10.4 2-MGD Capacity Plant……………………………………………………………………………. 786
21.11.10.5 2.6-MGD Capacity Plant…………………………………………………………………………. 786
21.11.10.6 3-MGD Capacity Plant……………………………………………………………………………. 787
21.11.10.7 4.8-MGD Capacity Plant…………………………………………………………………………. 787
21.11.10.8 5-MGD Capacity Plant……………………………………………………………………………. 787
21.11.10.9 24-MGD Capacity Plant………………………………………………………………………….. 787
21.11.10.10 39-MGD Capacity Plant………………………………………………………………………….. 787
21.11.10.11 42-MGD Capacity Plant………………………………………………………………………….. 787
21.11.10.12 54-MGD Capacity Plant………………………………………………………………………….. 788
21.11.10.13 67-MGD Capacity Plant ………………………………………………………………………….. 788
21.12 Solids (Sludge/Biosolids) Handling……………………………………………………………………………………………. 788
21.12.1 Background Information on Sludge ……………………………………………………………………………… 788
21.12.2 Sources of Sludge ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 788
21.12.3 Sludge Characteristics………………………………………………………………………………………………… 789
21.12.3.1 Sludge Pathogens and Vector Attraction……………………………………………………. 790
21.12.4 Sludge Pumping Calculations ……………………………………………………………………………………… 791
21.12.4.1 Estimating Daily Sludge Production…………………………………………………………. 791
21.12.4.2 Sludge Pumping Time …………………………………………………………………………….. 791
21.12.4.3 Gallons Sludge Pumped per Day ……………………………………………………………… 791
21.12.4.4 Pounds Sludge Pumped per Day ………………………………………………………………. 792
21.12.4.5 Pounds Solids Pumped per Day ……………………………………………………………….. 792
21.12.4.6 Pounds Volatile Matter (VM) Pumped per Day …………………………………………. 792
21.12.4.7 Sludge Production in Pounds per Million Gallons………………………………………. 792
21.12.4.8 Sludge Production in Wet Tons per Year……………………………………………………. 792
21.12.5 Sludge Thickening……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 793
21.12.5.1 Gravity Thickening ………………………………………………………………………………… 793
21.12.5.2 Flotation Thickening ………………………………………………………………………………. 793
21.12.5.3 Solids Concentrators ………………………………………………………………………………. 794
21.12.5.4 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting………………………….. 794
21.12.5.5 Process Calculations (Gravity and Dissolved Air Flotation) ………………………… 794
Contents xxxv
21.12.6 Sludge Stabilization……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 795
21.12.6.1 Aerobic Digestion…………………………………………………………………………………… 796
21.12.6.2 Anaerobic Digestion……………………………………………………………………………….. 797
21.12.6.3 Other Sludge Stabilization Processes…………………………………………………………800
21.12.6.4 Stabilization Operation …………………………………………………………………………… 808
21.12.6.5 Stabilization Performance Factors……………………………………………………………. 813
21.12.6.6 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting……………………………814
21.12.7 Rotary Vacuum Filtration……………………………………………………………………………………………..814
21.12.7.1 Types of Rotary Vacuum Filters……………………………………………………………….. 815
21.12.7.2 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting………………………….. 815
21.12.7.3 Process Control Calculations …………………………………………………………………… 815
21.12.8 Pressure Filtration ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….816
21.12.8.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting……………………………817
21.12.8.2 Filter Press Process Control Calculations……………………………………………………817
21.12.9 Centrifugation …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….818
21.12.9.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting……………………………818
21.12.10 Sludge Incineration………………………………………………………………………………………………………819
21.12.10.1 Process Description………………………………………………………………………………….819
21.12.10.2 Incineration Processes…………………………………………………………………………….. 820
21.12.10.3 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting………………………….. 820
21.12.11 Land Application of Biosolids……………………………………………………………………………………… 820
21.12.11.1 Process Control Sampling and Testing ……………………………………………………… 820
21.12.11.2 Process Control Calculations …………………………………………………………………… 820
21.13 Permits, Records, and Reports………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 826
21.13.1 Definitions………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 827
21.13.2 NPDES Permits…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 827
21.13.2.1 Monitoring…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 827
21.13.2.2 Reporting………………………………………………………………………………………………. 828
21.13.3 Sampling and Testing…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 828
21.13.3.1 Effluent Limitations ……………………………………………………………………………….. 828
21.13.3.2 Compliance Schedules ……………………………………………………………………………. 828
21.13.3.3 Special Conditions………………………………………………………………………………….. 828
21.13.3.4 Licensed Operator Requirements……………………………………………………………… 828
21.13.3.5 Chlorination/Dechlorination Reporting…………………………………………………….. 828
21.13.4 Reporting Calculations……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 828
21.13.4.1 Average Monthly Concentration ………………………………………………………………. 828
21.13.4.2 Average Weekly Concentration………………………………………………………………… 829
21.13.4.3 Average Hourly Concentration…………………………………………………………………. 829
21.13.4.4 Daily Quantity (kg/day)…………………………………………………………………………… 829
21.13.4.5 Average Monthly Quantity………………………………………………………………………. 829
21.13.4.6 Average Weekly Quantity ……………………………………………………………………….. 829
21.13.4.7 Minimum Concentration…………………………………………………………………………. 829
21.13.4.8 Maximum Concentration ………………………………………………………………………… 829
21.13.4.9 Bacteriological Reporting ……………………………………………………………………….. 829
Chapter Review Questions…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 829
References and Suggested Reading……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 832
Appendix A. Answers to Chapter Review Questions/Problems…………………………………………………………………………….. 835
Appendix B. Formulas………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 851 

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